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Latin Grammar
BY
CHARLES E. BENNETT
Professor of Latin in Cornell University
ALLYN AND BACON
ISoston anti Ctjicago
C 1 40(d3
First edition printed February, 1895.
Reprinted April and September, 1895; April, 1896;
July, 1897; April, 1898; May and September, 1899;
April and November, 1900; October, 1901; March,
1902; April and November, 1903; July, 1904; April,
1905; April and November, 190b.
Copyright, 1895,
By CHARLES E. BENNETT.
Army and Navy CluJJ
NorfajooO 53ress
J. S. Gushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
PREFACE.
The object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin
grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest
compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended
primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs
of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical in-
formation as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.
The experience of German educators in recent years has tended
to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded
an incorporation of the main principles of the language in com-
pact manuals of 250 pages.^ Within the past decade, several gram-
mars of this scope have appeared which have amply met the
exacting demands of the full Gymnasia! Latin course, — a period of
study representing quite as much reading as that covered by the
average American undergraduate.
The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan
and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent
editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special
idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors.
This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of
many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand con-
sideration in a student's grammar.
In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all
special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as
1 One of the most eminent of living Latinists, Professor Eduard Wolfiflin, of
Munich, has expressed the opinion that the essentials may be given within even
smaller compass than this. See his Preface to the Schmalz-Wagener Lateimsche
Grammatik, 1891,
iii
iv Preface.
well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions
of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versifica-
tion that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous.
In the matter of 'hidden quantities,' I have conformed to
Lewis's Latin Dictionary for Schools, and the same editor's later
Elementary Latin Dictionary. In several cases this procedure
has involved a sacrifice of convictions as to the actual quantity of
vowels; but the advantages of uniformity in our educational
practice seemed, for the present at least, to warrant this conces-
sion of personal views.
The discussion of inflectional forms and of the development of
case and mood constructions has been reserved for the Appendix
for Teachers, where these and some other matters receive full
and systematic consideration.
To several of my colleagues, who have generously assisted me
with their advice and criticism during the preparation and print-
ing of this book, I desire to off"er my sincerest thanks, especially
to Professors H. C. Elmer and B. I. Wheeler, of Cornell Univer-
sity, Professor Alfred Gudeman, of the University of Pennsylvania,
Professor George L. Hendrickson, of the University of Wisconsin,
and ' Professors Francis W. Kelsey and John C. Rolfe, of the
University of Michigan.
Ithaca, N. Y., Dec. 15, 1894.
PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION.
In this edition I have marked all long vowels in conformity with
the lists contained in my Appendix for Teachers (p. 52 ff.) . Lewis,
whose Latin Dictionaries I had originally followed, has meanwhile,
in the last edition of the Elementary Dictionary, accepted my
markings in a majority of the cases wherein I had expressed dis-
sent from him. C. E. B.
Ithaca, Feb. 10, 1896.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Part I.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC
The Alphabet
Classihcation of Sounds
Sounds of the Letters .
Syllables
Quantity
Accent .
Vowel Changes
Consonant Changes
Peculiarities of Orthography
PAGE
I
I
3
4
4
5
6
7
7
Part II.
INFLECTIONS.
CHAPTER I.
Declension.
A. Nouns.
Gender of Nouns .
Number
Cases .
The Five Declensions
First Declension .
Second Declension
Third Declension .
Fourth Declension
Fifth Declension .
Defective Nouns .
lo
II
II
12
13
14
i8
28
29
30
B. Adjectives.
Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions
Adjectives of the Third Declension
34
36
VI
Table of Contents.
Comparison of Adjectives
Formation and Comparison of Adverbs
Numerals ......
PAGE
40
43
45
C. Pronouns.
Personal Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
I'he Intensive Pronoun
The Relative Pronoun .
Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Pronominal Adjectives.
48
49
49
SO
51
51
52
52
53
CHAPTER II. — Conjugation.
Verb-Stems 54
The Four Conjugations ......... 55
Conjugation of Suin .......... 56
First Conjugation .... 0.0 ... 58
Second Conjugation ... o ...... 62
Third Conjugation .......... 66
Fourth Conjugation ......<,... 70
Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation ....... 74
Deponent Verbs ........... 76
Semi-Deponents ........... 78
Periphrastic Conjugation ......... 78
Peculiarities of Conjugation ......... 79
Formation of the Verb-Stems ........ 80
List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts .... 83
Irregular Verbs .......... -95
Defective Verbs ........... 102
Impersonal Verbs .. ....... . 104
Part III.
PARTICLES.
Adverbs 106
Prepositions ........... 107
Interjections .... ^ ,» ... . 108
Table of Contents.
Vll
Part IV.
WORD FORMATION.
I. Derivatives.
PAGE
Nouns 109
Adjectives . . . . . . . . , . . .111
Verbs = , . , ., . 113
Adverbs . . . .114
II. Compounds.
Examples of Compounds . . . . . . , . 'i^S
Part V.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER \. — Sentences.
Classification of Sentences . . . . . . . . -H?
Form of Interrogative Sentences . . . . . . ' . • 1 1 7
Subject and Predicate . . . . . . . . . .119
Simple and Compound Sentences . . . . . . .119
CHAPTER II. — Syntax of Nouns.
Subject . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Predicate Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Appositives . . . - . . . . . . .121
The Nominative . . . . . . . . . . .122
The Accusative . . . . . . . . . . .122
The Dative . . . . . . . . . . . .129
The Genitive . . . . . . . . . . > 134
The Ablative . . . „ 142
The Locative ........... 152
CHAPTER HI. — Syntax of Adjectives.
Agreement of Adjectives
Adjectives used Substantively
Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs
Comparatives and Superlatives
Other Peculiarities
153
154
156
156
156
Vlll
Table of Contents.
CHAPTER IV. — Syntax of Pronouns.
Personal Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns .
Demonstrative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Pronominal Adjectives
CHAPTER V. — Syntax of Verbs.
Agreement of Verbs
Voices
Tenses
Of the Indicative
Of the Subjunctive
Of the Infinitive
Moods
In Independent Sentences
Volitive Subjunctive .
Optative Subjunctive .
Potential Subjunctive
Imperative
In Dependent Sentences
Clauses of Purpose .
Clauses of Characteristic
Clauses of Result
Causal Clauses .
Temporal Clauses
Introduced by Postquam^ Ut, Ubi, etc.
Cz<;«-Clauses ....
Introduced by Antequam and Prhisquam
Introduced by Dum^ Donee., Quoad
Substantive Clauses .
Developed from the Volitive
Developed from the Optative
Of Result .
After non dubito, etc.
Introduced by Quod
Indirect Questions
Conditional Sentences
Use of St., Nisi. Sin .
Table of Contents, ix
PAGE
Conditional Clauses of Comparison ...... 203
Concessive Clauses ......... 203
Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamquam, etc. . . . 203
Clauses of Wish and Proviso . . ..... 205
Relative Clauses ......... 205
Indirect Discourse ......... 206
Moods in Indirect Discourse ...... 206
Tenses in Indirect Discourse ...... 208
Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse .... 209
Implied Indirect Discourse . . . . . . .211
Subjunctive by Attraction , . . . . . . .212
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb 212
Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . .213
Participles . . . . . . . . . . .217
Gerund ............ 220
Supine ............ 223
CHAPTER Yl. — Particles.
Coordinate Conjunctions ......... 223
Adverbs 227
CHAPTER VIL— Word- Order and Sentence-Structure.
Word-Order 227
Sentence-Structure .......... 232
CHAPTER N\\\. — Hints on Latin Style.
Nouns ............ 233
Adjectives ............ 235
Pronouns ............ 236
Verbs ............. 236
The Cases ............ 238
Part VI.
PROSODY.
Quantity of Vowels and Syllables ....
. 240
Verse-Structure
• 243
The Dactylic Hexameter
• 245
The Dactylic Pentameter
. . 246
Iambic Verses
. . 246
Table of Contents.
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
PAGE
I. Roman Calendar 247
II. Abbreviations of Proper Names . . . . o . . 249
III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric .,000.. 249
Part 1.
— • —
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
THE ALPHABET.
1, The Latin Alphabet is the same as the EngUsh,
except that the Latin has no w.
1 . K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words ; y and z
were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign
words — chiefly Greek.
2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served
both as vowel and consonant ; so also V. For us, however, it is more
convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write
i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer
to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.
2. I. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters
are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.
2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids,
Nasals, and Spirants.
3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of
these, —
d) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,^ i.e. sounded without voice or
vibration of the vocal chords.
b) b, d, g are voiced,^ i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal
chords.
1 For ' voiceless,' ' surd,' ' hard,' or ' tenuis ' are sometimes used.
2 For ' voiced,' ' sonant,' ' soft,' or ' media ' are sometimes used.
B I
2 Sounds, Accent, Quantity,
c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclu-
sively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent
to p + h, t + hj c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes
with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-houses block-
house.
4. The Mutes admit of classification also as
Labials, p, b, ph.
Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th.
Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.
5. The Liquids are 1, r. These sounds were voiced.
6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its
ordinary sound, n, when followed by a palatal mute, also
had another sound, — that of ng in sing, — the so-called
n adulterinitm ; as, —
anceps, double, pronounced angceps.
7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h.
These were voiceless.
8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.
9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was
equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain.
See § 3. 3.
10. The following table v/ill indicate the relations of
the consonant sounds : —
Voiceless.
Voiced.
Aspirates.
Mutes,
c, k, q,
th,
Ch,
(Labials).
(Dentals).
(Gutturals).
Liquids,
l,r,
Nasals,
Spirants
Semivowels,
m,n,
(Labial).
(Dental).
(Guttural).
a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds,
do not admit of classification in the above table.
Sounds of the Letters.
SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is
substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of
their civilization ; i.e. roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 a.d.
a
1. vuwcia.
as m father]
a
as in the first syllable of ahd ;
e
as in they ;
e
as in met;
i
as in machine;
i
as in pin ;
6
as in note;
6
as in obey, melody;
u
as in rude;
ii
as in put ;
y
like French u^ German u.
2. Diphthongs.
ae like aixvi aisle; eu with its two elements, e and ii, pro-
oe like oi in oil; nounced in rapid succession ;
ei as in rein ; ui occurs almost exclusively in cui and
au like ow in hoiv; huic. These words are pronounced
as though written kwee and ivheek.
3. Consonants.
b, d, f, h, k, 1, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that
bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt.
c is always pronounced as k.
t is always a plain t. never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration.
g always as in get; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of
gw., as in anguis, languidus.
j has the sound of jK as in yet.
r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue,
s always voiceless as in siti; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in com-
pounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw.
V like w.
zs. always like ks ; never like Eng. gz or z.
z uncertain in sound ; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter
sound is recommended.
The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed
Eng. p, c, t — so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter
sounds suffice.
Doubled letters, like 11, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that
both members of the combination are distinctlv articulated.
Sotmds, Accent y Quantity.
SYLLABLES.
4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there
are separate vowels and diphthongs.
In the division of words into syllables, —
1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat,
ge-rit.
2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as,
vit-ta, mis-sus.
3. In case of other combinations of consonants, such as can stand at
the beginning of a word are joined to the following vowel ; as, ma-gi-
strl, di-gnus, te-xi.
4. But compounds are separated into their component parts ; as,
pei-it, ab-radit.
QUANTITY.
5. A. Quantity of Vowels.
A vowel is lo)ig or short according to the length of time required for
its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the
quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large
measure, by experience ; but the following principles are of aid : —
1. A vowel is long,i —
a) before nf, ns, and before gu in nouns and adjectives in
-gnus, -gna, -gnum ; as, inf ans, dignus, signum.
b) when the result of contraction ; as, nilum for nihilum.
c) before j ; as, hujus.
2. A vowel is short, —
a) before nt, nd ; as, amant, amandus. A few rare exceptions
occur in cases of compounds whose first member has a long
vowel ; as, nondum (non dum) .
U) before another vowel, or h ; as, nieus, tralio. Some excep-
tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek ;
as, Aeneas.
Note. — Occasionally we meet with vowels that are sometimes long, sometimes
short. Such vowels are called common. The variation appears only in poetry.
Examples are the first vowel in Diana, Ohe.
1 In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them ; as,
a, i, O, etc. Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set above
hort vowels: as. e. u.
Accent. 5
B. Quantity of Syllables.
Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length
of time required for their pronunciation. Their quantity is governed
by the following principles : —
1. A syllable is long,i —
a) if it contains a long vowel ; as, mater, magnus, dius.
b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.
c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two con-
sonants (except a mute with 1 or r) ; as, axis, gaza, resto.
2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a
vowel or by a single consonant ; as, mea, amat.
3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is
short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, cl, tl ; pr, cr,
tr, etc, as, agri, voliicris."'^ Such syllables are called comynott. In
prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as
long at the option of the poet.
Note. — These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary
and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a
short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such
a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation ; while a syllable
containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because
it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables,
the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination
which takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. Yet by sepa-
rating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such
syllables as long.
ACCENT.
6. I. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first ; as, t^git,
morem.
2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult
(next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante-
penult (second from the last); as, amavi, amantis, miserum.
3. The enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum always throw an
accent back upon the preceding syllable, when the simple word is ac-
cented on the antepenult ; as, miseraque, homing que.
4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without
affecting the accent ; as, tanton, istic, illuc, vid^n (for vidlsne).
1 To avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign.
2 But if the 1 or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding
syllable is always long; as, abrurapS.
6 Sounds, Accent, Quantity.
5. In utrique, each, and pleraque, most, -que is not properly an
enclitic ; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence
of their other cases, — uterque, utriimque, pleriimque.
6. But in other words, -que does not throw back an accent unless
it is a true enclitic, meaning and. Thus, regularly, denique, lindique,
litique, itaque ; but if itaque means and . . . so (-que being enclitic),
It is accented itaque.
VOWEL CHANGES.i
7. I. In Compounds, —
a) e before a single consonant becomes i; as, —
colligo for con-lego.
b) a before a single consonant becomes i ; as, —
adigo for ad-ago.
c) a before two consonants becomes e ; as, —
expers for ex-pars.
d^ ae becomes 1 ; as, —
conquiro for con-quaero
e) au becomes u, sometimes 6 ; as, —
concludo for con-claudo ;
explode for ex-plaudo.
2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into
one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed ; as, —
tres for tre-es ; copia for co-opia ;
malo for nia(v)el6 ; cogo for co-ago ;
amasti for ama(v)isti ; como for co-emo ;
debeo for de(h)abe6 ; junior for ju(v)enior.
nil for nihil ;
3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals
a parasitic vowel sometimes develops ; as, —
vinculum for earlier vinclum.
So periculum, saeculum.
4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope ; as, —
ardor for aridor (cf. dridus) ;
valde for valide (cf. validus).
1 Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.
Peculiarities of Orthography.
CONSONANT CHANGES.^
8. I. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r ; as, —
arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) ;
genus, Gen. generis (for genesis);
dirimo (for dis-emo) .
2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss ; as, —
pensum for pend-tum ;
versum for vert-tum ;
miles for milet-s ;
sessus for sedtus ;
passus for pattus.
3. Final consonants were often omitted ; as, —
cor for cord ;
lac for lact.
4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated
to a following sound. Thus: accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero
(ads-); allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo
(adr-); affero (adf-); occurro (obc-); suppono (subp-); offero
(obf-); corruo (comr-); collatus (coml-); etc.
5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only
partial. Thus : —
a) b before s or t becomes p ; as, —
scrips! (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum).
U) g before s or t becomes c ; as, —
actus (ag-tus).
c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n ; as, —
eundem (eum-dem) ; princeps (prim-ceps).
PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
9. Many words have variable orthography.
I. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the
language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc.y were the prevailing
1 Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.
8 Sonndsy Accent, Quantity.
forms almost down to the Augustan Age; after that, cum, vultus,
vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc.^ down
to about the same era ; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc.
2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same
period of the language. Examples are exspecto, expecto ; exsisto,
exists ; epistula, epistola ; adulescens, adolescens ; paulus, paul-
lus; cottidie, cotidie ; and, particularly, prepositional compounds,
which, even in those cases where actual assimilation took place in the
spoken language (§ 8. 4), often made a concession to the etymology in
the spelling; as, —
ad-ger5 or aggero ; ad-sero or assero ;
ad-licio or allicio ; in-latus or illatus ;
ad-rogans or arrogans ; sub-moveo or summoveo ;
and many others.
3. Compounds of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio,
obicio, Ptc, but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio,
objicio, etc.
4.. Adjectives and nouns in -qtiiis, -quum ; -vus, -vum ; -uus,
-uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom ; -vos, -vom ;
-uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age ; as, antiquos, anti-
quom; saevos ; perpetuos ; equos ; servos. Similarly verbs in
the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont,
-quontuj ; -vont, -vontur ; -uont, -uontur, for the same period ; as,
relinquont, loquontur ; vivont, metuont.
The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus
and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.
Part II.
INFLECTIONS.
♦—
10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as
in Enghsh, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs,
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections;
but the Latin has no article.
11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are
capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form
t express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns,
Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declen-
sion ; in case of Verbs, Conjugation.
Chapter I. — Declension,
A. NOUNS.
12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or
quality ; as, Caesar, Caesar ; Roma, Rome ; penna, feather ;
virtus, courage.
1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are perma-
nent names of persons or places ; as, Caesar, Homa. Other nouns
are Common ; as, penna, virtus.
2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.
a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects ;
as, mons, monntain ; pes, foot ; dies, day ; mens, mind.
9
10 Injhctions.
Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns ;
as, legio, legion] comitatus, retinue.
b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, constantia, stead-
fastness ; paupertas, poverty.
GENDER OF NOUNS.
13. There are three Genders, — Masculine, Feminine,
and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or gram-
matical.
Natural Gender.
14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based
upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names
of persons ; and these are —
1. Masculine, if they denote males ; as, —
nauta, sailor; agricola, /<2r;/z^r.
2. Feminine, if they denote females ; as, —
mater, 7nother; regina, queen.
Grammatical Gender.
15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but
by the general signification of the word, or the ending of
its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns
denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Femi-
nine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending
of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general
principles for determining grammatical gender : —
A. Gender detenni7ied by Signification.
1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Mascu-
line ; as, —
Sequana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprilis, April.
2. Names of Trees, and such names of Coicntries,
Towns, and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine ; as, —
quercus, oak; Pontus, Pontiis; Corinthus, Corijith: Rhodus, Rhodes.
Number. — Cases. 1 1
Other names of countries, towns, and islands follow the gender of
their endings (see B, below) ; as, —
Delphi, m. ; Leuctra, n. ; Latium, n. ; Tibur, n. ; Carthago, f.
3. Indeclinable nouns are Neuter ; as, —
nihil, nothing] nefas, wrong.
Note. — Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the
river) , f.
B. Gender deter?m?ted by Ending of Nominative Singular.
The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending
of the Nominative Singular.^
Note i . — Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Mascu-
line, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either priest or
priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also civis,
citizen ; parens, parent ; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be
coinmon.
Note 2. — Names of animals usually have grammatical gender,
according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one
form may designate either the male or female; as, anser, m., goose
ox gander. So vulpes, i., fox; aquila, f., eagle.
NUMBER.
16. The Latin has two Numbers, — the Singular and
Plural. The Singular denotes one object; the Plural,
more than one.
CASES.
17. There are six Cases in Latin : —
Nominative, Case of Subject ;
Genitive, Objective with of;
Dative, Objective with to ox for;
Accusative, Case of Direct Object ;
Vocative, Case of Address ;
Ablative, Objective with by., fro?n, in, with.
1 The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The prin-
ciples for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions.
1 2 Inflections.
1. Locative. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting
place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.
2. Oblique Cases. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Abla-
tive are called Oblique Cases.
3. Stem and Case-Endings. The different cases are formed by
appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the
Stem.i Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding
the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final
vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending
that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case-
ending thus resulting is called a termination.
THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.
18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished
from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also
by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows : —
Declension. Final Letter of Stem. Gen. Termination.
First a -ae
Second 6 -i
Third \ ^ -is
( Some consonant
Fourth ii -us
Fifth e . -ei
Cases alike in Form.
19. I. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in
the Singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.
2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.
3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and
in the Plural end in -a.
4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative
Plural is regularly like the Nominative.
1 The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form, called the Root.
Thus, the stem poi'ta- goes back to the root per-, por-. Roots are mono-
syllabic. The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a SufiQ.x. Thus
in porta- the sufifix is -ta-.
First Declension. 13
FIRST DECLENSION.
a-Stems.
20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regu-
larly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened
from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are
declined as follows : —
Porta., gate ; stem, porta-.
SINGULAR.
Cases.
Meanings.
Terminations.
JVom.
porta
a gate (as subject)
-a
Gen.
portae
of a gate
-ae
Dat.
portae
to or for a gate
-ae
Ace.
portam
a gate (as object)
-am
Voc.
porta
0 gat el
-a
AM.
porta
with, by, froin, in a
PLURAL.
gate
-a
Nom.
portae
gates (as subject)
-ae
Gen.
portarum
of gates
-arum
Dat.
portis
to or for gates
-Is
Ace.
portas
gates (as object)
-as
Voc.
portae
0 gates!
-ae
AM.
portTs
with, by, from, in gates
-IS
1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or
the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates.
Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declensiod.
21. I. Exceptions IN Gender. Nouns denoting males are Mascu-
line; as, nauta, sailor', a^ricola., farmer ; also Hadria, Adriatic Sea.
2. Rare Case-Endings, —
a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in
the combination pater familias, father of a family ; also
in mater familias, filius familias, filia familias. But the
regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in
these expressions ; as, pater familiae.
b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs ; as, aulai.
14 Inflections.
c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae ; as, Romae, at Rome,
d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -arum sometimes occurs;
as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This termina-
tion -um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an
entirely different case-ending.
e) Besides the regular ending -is, we find also -abus in the
Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and filia, daugh-
ter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns
from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and filius, son.
A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity ; as,
libertabus (from liherta, freediuoman), equabus (mares),
to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus, freedmati)
and equis (from equus, horse).
Greek Nouns.
22. These end in -e (Feminine); -as and-es (Masculine).
In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns
of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined
as follows : —
Archias, Archias. Epitome, epitofne. Cometes, comet.
epitome cometes
epitomes cometae
epitomae cometae
epitomen cometen
epitome comete (or -a)
epitome comete (or -a)
1. But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a,
and are decHned like porta; as, grammatica, grammar; musica,
music; rhetorica, rhetoric.
2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.
SECOND DECLENSION.
o-Stems.
23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end
in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine ; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in
the Nominative of the Masculines was -os, and -um of the
Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.
Nodi.
Archias
Gen.
Archiae
Dat.
Archiae
Ace.
Archiam (or -an)
Voc.
Archia
Abl.
Archia
Second Declension.
15
Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows :
Hortus
^, garden-,
Bellum,
war-.
stem,
hortS-.
stem, bell6-.
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Termination.
Nom.
hortus
-US
bellum
-um
Gen.
horti
-1
belli
-1
Dat.
horto
-6
bello
-6
Ace.
hortum
-um
bellum
-um
Voc.
horte
-e
bellum
-um,
AM.
horto
-6
PLURAL.
bello
-6
Nom.
horti
-1
bella
-a
Gen.
hortorum -orum
bellorum
-orum
Dat.
hortis
-is
bellis
-Is
Ace.
hortos
-OS
bella
-a
Voc.
horti
-i
bella
-a
Abl.
hortis
-IS
bellis
-IS
Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows : —
Puer, boy ;
Ager, field;
Vir, man;
stem, puer6-.
stem, agro-.
stem, vir6-.
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Nom.
puer
ager
vir
Wanting
Gen.
puerl
agri
viri
-1
Dat.
puero
agro
viro
-5
Ace.
puerum
agrum
virum
-um
Voc.
puer
ager
vir
Wanting
Abl.
puero
agro
PLURAL.
viro
-6
Nom.
puerl
agrI
virl
-T
Gen.
puerorum
agrorum
virorum
-orum
Dat.
pueris
agrls
virls
-is
Ace.
pueros
agros
viros
-OS
Voc.
puerl
agrI
virl
-1
Abl.
pueris
agrls
virls
-is
I . Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel,
of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.
i6
Inflections.
In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further
modified by the development of e before r.
2. The tcllowing nouns in -er are declined like puer : adulter,
adulterer; gener, son-in-law; Liber, Bacchus; socex, father-in-law ;
vesper, eveni^ig; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.
Nouns in -vus, -vum, -quns.
Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus,
24. iNouns enaing in ine iNommaiive :5inguiar m -vus, -vum,
-quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin, — an
earlier and a later, — as follows : —
Earlier Inflection {including Caesar and Cicero).
Servos, m., slave. Aevom, n., age. Equos, m., horse.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
servos
aevom
equos
Gen.
servl
aevi
equi
Dat.
servo
aevo
equo
Ace.
servom
aevom
equom
Voc.
serve
aevom
eque
Abl.
servo
aevo
equo
Later Inflection {after Cicero).
SINGULAR.
Nom.
servus
aevum
equus
Gen.
servl
aevi
equi
Dat.
servo
aevo
equo
Ace.
servum
aevum
equum
Voc.
serve
aevum
eque
Abl.
servo
aevo
equo
I. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and alwavs uniform.
Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension,
25. I. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular
in -I (instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie); as,
Verglli, of Vergil., or O Vergil (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie). In
such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be
short.
2. Nouns in -ius a;id -ium, until after the beginning of the reign
of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -1
(instead of -ii); as, —
Second Declension, 1 7
Nom. ingenium fHius
Gen. ingdni fill
These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.
3. Filius forms the Vocative Singular in -1 (for -ie); viz., fill,
O soil !
4. 'DevLS,god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected
as follows : —
Nom.
dl
(del)
Gen.
deornm
(deum)
Dat.
dis
(dels)
Ace.
deos
Voc.
dl
(del)
AM.
dis
(dels)
5-
6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -orum, —
a) in words denoting money and measure ; as, talentum, of
talents ; m o diu m , (^Z* pecks .
b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir ; as, duuraivirum.
c) sometimes in other words ; as, liberum, of the children ;
socium, of the allies.
Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.
26. I. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception : —
a) Names of countries, towns, islands, trees — according to
the general rule laid down in § 15. 2.
b) Five special words, —
alvus, belly,
carbasus, flax',
colus, distaff;
humus, ground;
vannus, winnowing-fan.
c) A few Greek Feminines ; as, —
atomus, atom ;
diphthongus, diphthong.
2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:
pelagus, sea ;
virus, poison ;
vulgus, crowd.
c
1 8 Inflections.
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.
27. These end in -os, -6s, Masculine or Feminine ; and
-on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are
declined as follows : —
Barbitos, m. and f.,
Androgeos, m.,
Ilion, r
lyre.
Androgeos.
Troy.
Noi7i. barbitos
Androgeos
Tlion
Gen. barbiti
Androgeo, -I
Ilii
Dat. barbito
Androgeo
Tlio
Ace. barbiton
Androgeo, -on
Ilion
Voc. barbite
Androgeos
Ilion
AM. barbito
Androgeo
llio
1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um,
instead of -on ; as, Delum, Delos.
2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.
3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be con-
sulted.
THIRD DECLENSION.
28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -i, -6,
-y, -c, -1, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes
several distinct classes of Stems, —
I. Pure Consonant-Stems.
II. i-Stems.
III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted
themselves to the inflection of i-Stems.
IV. A very few Stems ending in a long vowel or a
diphthong.
V. Irregular Nouns.
I. Consonant Stems.
29. I. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form
in all the oblique cases ; so that the actual case-endings
may be clearly recognized.
Third Declension.
19
2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according
as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.
A. Mute-Sterns.
30. Mute-Stems may end, —
1. In a Labial (b or p); as, trab-s ; princep-s.
2. In a Guttural (g or c) ; as, remex (remeg-s) ; dux (duo-s).
3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (milet-s).
I. Stems in a Labial Mute (b, p).
31,
Trabs, f., beam.
Princeps, m., chief.
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Nom.
trabs
princeps
-s
Gen.
trabis
principis
-is
Dat.
trabi
principl
-i
Ace.
trabem
prmcipem
-em
Voc.
trabs
princeps
-s
Abl.
trabe
principe
PLURAL.
-e
Nom.
trabes
principes
-es
Gen.
trabum
principum
-um
Dat.
trabibus
principibus
-ibus
Ace.
trabes
principes
-es
Voc.
trabes
principes
-es
Abl.
trabibus
principibus
-ibus
2. Stems in a Guttural Mute (g", c).
32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites
with the guttural, thus producing -x.
Remex, m.
, rower.
Dux, c.
, leader.
singular.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
, remex
remiges
dux
duces
Gen.
remigis
remigum
ducis
ducum
Dat.
remigi
remigibus
duel
ducibus
Ace.
remigem
remiges
ducem
duces
Voc.
remex
remiges
dux
duces
Abl.
remige
remigibus
duce
ducibus
20
Inflections.
3. Stems in a Dental Mute (d, t).
33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nomi-
native Singular before the ending -s.
Lapis, n^
., stofie.
Miles, m.
, soldier.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom
lapis
lapides
miles
milites
Gen.
lapidis
lapidum
militis
militum
Dat.
lapidi
lapidibus
militi
mllitibus
Ace.
lapidem
lapides
mllitem
milites
Voe.
lapis
lapides
miles
milites
Abl.
lapide
lapidibus
milite
militibus
B. Liquid Stems.
34. These end in -1 or -r.
Vigil, m.,
ivatcJwian.
Nom. vigil
Ge7i. vidlis
Dat.
Ace.
Vac.
Abl.
vigili
vigilem
vigil
Victor, m.,
conqueror.
SINGULAR.
victor
victoris
victor!
• victorem
victor
victore
Aequor, n.,
sea.
aequor
aequoris
aequori
aequor
aequor
aequore
No7n.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
vigiles
vigilum
vigiles
visfilibus
PLURAL.
victores
victorum
victdribus
victores
victores
victoribus
aequora
aequorum
aequoribus
aequora
aequora
aequoribus
1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nomi-
native and Vocative Singular without termination.
2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative,
and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.
Third Declension.
21
C. Nasal Stems.
35. These end in -n,i which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.
Leo, m., lion.
Nomen,
n., name.
SINGULAR.
, PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
leo
leones
n5men
nomina
Gen.
leonis
leonum
nominis
nominum
Dat.
leonl
leonibus
nomini
nominibus
Ace.
leonem
leones
nomen
ndmina
Voc.
leo
leones
nomen
nomina
AM.
leone
le5nibus
nomine
nominibus
36. Mos, m., custom.
No?n.
mos
Gen.
moris
Dat.
mori
Ace.
morem
Voc.
mos
Abl.
more
Nom.
mores
Ge7t.
morum
Dat.
moribus
Ace.
mores
Voc.
mores
Abl.
moribus
D. s-Stems.
Genus, n., race.
SINGULAR.
genus
generis
generi
genus
genus
genera
PLURAL.
genera
generum
generibus
genera
genera
ijeneribus
Honor, m., honor.
honor
honoris
honor!
honorem
honor
honore
honores
honorum
honoribus
honores
honores
honoribus
I . Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels)
in the oblique cases. In some words (honor, color, and the like)
the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative,
displacing the earlier s, though the forms honos, colos, etc., also occur,
particularly in early Latin and in poetry.
1 There is only one stem ending in -m, — hiems, hiemis, winter.
22
Inflections.
II. 2-Stems.
A. Masadine and Fejninine \-Stems.
37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singu-
lar, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally
the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular
in -1, and the Accusative Plural in -is ; but these endings
have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the end-
ings of Consonant-Stems.
. Tussis, f., ^^/^^//; ]
[gnis, m.,yfr^;
Hostis, c., i
enemy;
stem, tussi-.
stem, igni-.
stem, hosti-
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Norn.
tussis
Ignis
hostis
-is
Geii.
tussis
Ignis
hostis
-is
Dat.
tussi
Tgni
host!
-1
Ace.
tussim
Tgnem
hostem
-im, -em
Voc.
tussis
Ignis
hostis
-is
AM.
tussi
igni or -e
PLURAL.
hoste
-e,-i
Nom.
tusses
Tgnes
hostes
-es
Gen.
tussium
Tgnium
hostium
-ium
Dat.
tussibus
Tgnibus
hostibus
-ibus
Ace.
tussis or -es
Ignis or -es
hostis or
-es
-IS, -es
Voc.
tusses
ignes
hostes
-es
Abl.
tussibus
Tgnibus
hostibus
-ibus
I. To the same class belong —
*amussis, rule. corbis, basket.
apis, bee.
auris, ear.
avis, bird.
axis, axle.
*biiris, plough-beam.
clavis, key.
collis, hill.
scobis, sawdust.
*securis, axe.
Gratis, hurdle.
*^cbria, fever.
orbis, circle.
ovis, sheep.
pelvis, ^osin.
puppis, stern.
restis, rope.
and many others.
Words marked with a star have Ace. -im, Abl. -i. Of the others, many
at limes show i-forms. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -i.
sementis, sowing
*sitis, thirst.
torris, brand.
*turris, tower.
trudis, pole.
vectis, lever.
Third Declension.
23
2. Not all nouns in -is are i-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-
stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, nota-
bly, canis, dog; juvenis, youth?-
3. Some genuine i-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative
Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s ; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so
also mors, death; dos, dowry; nox, night; sors, lot; mens, mind;
ars, art; gins, tribe; and some others.
B. Neuter i-Stems.
39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and
-ar. They always have -1 in the Ablative Singular, -ia in
the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium
in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to
the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine i-Stems.
Sedlle, seat ; A.nima.1, animal ; Calcsix, spur ;
stem, sedlli-. stem, animali-. stem, calcari-
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Nom.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or wanting
Gen.
sedllis
animalis
calcaris
-is
Dat.
sedlll
animall
calcari
-i
Ace,
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or wanting
Vac.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or wanting
Abl.
sedlli
animall
PLURAL.
calcari"
-i
Nom.
sedllia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
Gen.
sedllium
animalium
calcarium
-ium
Dat.
sedilibus
animalibus
calcaribus
-ibus
Ace.
sedllia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
Voc.
sedllia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
Abl.
sedilibus
animalibus
calcaribus
-ibus
1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the
Nominative Singular ; in others it appears as -e.
2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e ; as, Soracte,
Soracte; so also sometimes mare, sea.
1 Mensis, month, originally a consonant-stem (mens-), has in the Genitive
Plural both mensium and mensum. The Accusative Plural is menses.
24
Inflections.
TJl. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves
to the Inflection of i-Stems.
40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted them-
selves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the
Genitive Plural, and -Is in the Accusative Plural. Their
true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by
the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singu-
lar, or -i in the Ablative Singular. The following words
are examples of this class : —
Caedes, f., slaughter \
stem, caed-.
Arx, f., citadel 'y Linter, f., skiff;
stem, arc-. stem, lintr-.
SINGULAR.
No7n.
caedes
arx
linter
Gen.
caedis
arcis
lintris
Dat.
caedi
arc!
lintrl
Ace.
caedem
arcem
lintrem
Voc.
caedes
arx
linter
Abl.
caede
arce
PLURAL.
lintre
No7n.
caedes
arces
lintres
Gen.
caedium
arcium
lintrium
Dat.
caedibus
arcibus
lintribus
Ace.
caedes, -Is
arces, -Is
lintres, -Is
Voc.
caedes
arces
lintres
Abl.
caedibus
arcibus
lintribus
The following classes of nouns belong here : —
^) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is ; as, nubes, aedes,
clades, etc.
b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more
consonants ; as, urbs, mons, stirps, lanx.
^) Most nouns in -ns and -rs ; as, cliens, cohors.
d^ Uter, venter ; fur, lis, mas, mus, nix ; and the Plurals
fauces, penates, Optimates, Samnltes, Quirltes.
^) Sometimes nouns in -tas with Genitive -tatis ; as, civitas,
aetas.
Third Declension.
25
41.
IV. Stei
ns in -1, -u, and Diphthongs.
Vis, f.,
Sus, c.
Bos, c.
Jupiter, m.,
force ;
swine ;
ox, cow ;
Jicpiter ;
stem, vi-.
stem, SU-.
SINGULAR.
stem, bou-.
stem, Jou-.
Nom.
VIS
SUS
bos
Jupiter
Gen.
vis
suis
bovis
Jovis
Dat.
vi
sui
bovi
Jovi
Ace.
vim
suem
bovem
Jovem
Voc.
vis
sus
bos
Jupiter
Abl.
vi
sue
PLURAL.
bove
Jove
Nom.
vires
sues
boves
Gen.
virium
suum
j bovum
"jboum
Dat.
vTribus
j suibus
1 subus
j bobus
1 bubus
Ace.
vires
sues
boves
Voc.
vires
sues
boves
Abl.
viribus
suibus
subus
( bobus
} bubus
1. Notice that the oblique cases of siis have H in the root syllable.
2. Grus is declined like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative
Plural are always gruibus.
3. Jupiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem
as in Jov-is, Jov-i, eU.
4. Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has
passed over to the i-stems (§ 37).
Senex, m., old man.
Caro, f.,/!'?/^.
OS, n., bone.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
senex
car5
OS
Gen.
senis
carnis
ossis
Dat.
seni
carni
ossi
Ace.
senem
carnem
OS
Voc.
senex
caro
OS
Abl.
sene
carne
osse
26 Inflections.
PLURAL.
Nom.
senes
carnes
ossa
Gen.
senum
carnium
ossium
Dat.
senibus
carnibus
ossibus
Ace.
senes
carnes
ossa
Voc.
senes
carnes
ossa
Abl.
senibus
carnibus
ossibus
1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem
itiner-.
2. Supellex, supellectilis, i., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The
oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The Ablative has both
-i and -e.
3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems, — jecor- and
jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris,
4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem feruor-,
but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus. Gen. femoris or feminis.
General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.
43. I. Nouns in -0, -or, -OS, -er, -es are Masculine.
2. Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant);
-do, -go (Genitive -inis) ; -io (abstract and' collective), -us (Genitive
-utis or -tidis) are Feminine.
3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -c, -1, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -iis are
Neuter.
Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.
44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.
1. Nouns in -6.
a. Feminine: caxb, flesh.
2. Nouns in -or.
a. Feminine : arbor, tree.
b. Neuter : aequor, sea ; cor, heart ; marmor, marble,
3. Nouns in -6s.
a. Feminine : dos, dowry.
b. Neuter: 6s {oris), ?nouth
Nouns in -er.
a. Feminine : linter, skiff.
Third Declension. 2y
b. Neuter: cadaver, corpse; iter, way, tuber, timior; uber,
udder. Also botanical names in -er ; as, acer, maple.
5. Nouns in -e.3.
a. Feminine : seges, crop.
45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.
1. Nouns in -as.
a. Masculine, as, ait as (coin) ; vas, bondsman.
b. Neuter : vas, vessel.
2. Nouns in -es.
a. Masculine: axies, ram ; paries, wall ; pes, /ool.
3. Nouns in -is.
a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis ; as, amnis, river;
Ignis, fire; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.
Also —
2iS.\s, axle. piscis, fish.
collis, /////. postis, post.
fascis, bundle. pulvis, dust.
lapis, stone. orbis, circle.
mensis, month. sentis, brier.
4. Nouns in -x.
a. Masculine : apex, peak ; codex, tree-trunk ; grex, flock ;
imbrex, tile; poUex, thumb; vertex, summit ; calix, cup.
5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.
a. Masculine : dens, tooth ; f 6ns, fountain ; mons, mountain :
pons, bridge.
6. Nouns in -do.
a. Masculine: caxdib, hinge; 6x6.6, order.
46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.
1. Nouns in -1.
a. Masculine : sol, sun ; sal, saU.
2. Nouns in -n.
a. Masculine : pecten, comb.
3. Nouns in -ur.
a. Masculine : vultur, vulture.
4. Nouns in -us.
a. Masculine : lepus, har/^.
28
Inflections.
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.
47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these : —
1. The ending -a in the Accusative Singular; as, aethera, «^//z^r ;
Salamina, Salmnis.
2. The ending -Ss in the Nominative Plural; as, Phryges,
Phrygians.
3. The ending -as in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygas,
Phrygians.
4. Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocative
Singular; as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla, Atlas.
5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -is instead of -ibus in
the Dative and Ablative Plural ; as, poematis, poe?ns.
6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the
Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.^. But in prose the other
cases usually follow the second declension ; as, Orphei, Orpheo, etc.
7. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular
sometimes in -is, sometimes in -1 ; as, Periclis or Pericli.
8. Feminine proper names in -6 have -us in the Genitive, but -6
in the other oblique cases ; as, —
Nom. Dido Ace. Dido
Gen. DIdus Voc. Did5
Dat. DId5 Abl. Dido
9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
u-Stems.
48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Mascu-
line, and -u Neuter. They are declined as follows : —
Fructus
., fruit.
Cornu,
, horn.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
fructus
fructus
cornu
cornua
Gen.
fructus
fructuum
cornus
cornuum
Dat.
fructui
fructibus
cornu
cornibus
Ace.
fructum
fructus
cornui
cornua
Voc.
fructus
fructus
cornu
cornua
Abl.
fructu
fructibus
cornu
cornibus
Fourth Declension. — Fifth Declension. 29
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.
49. I. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the
Genitive Singular in -1, following the analogy of nouns in -us of
the Second Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the
case in Plautus and Terence.
2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -u in the Dative Singular, instead
of -ui; as, fructu (for fructui).
3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and
Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs ] tribus, tribe-, and in dis-
syllables in -cus ; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But
with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus
as well as those in -ubus.
4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension,
but has also the following forms of the Second : —
domi (locative), at home; domum, homewards, to one''s home;
domo, from home ; domos, homewards, to their (etc.) hojftes.
5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are : cornu,
genu, and veru.
Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.
50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle;
domus, house; manus, hajid; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe;
idus (Plural), Ides.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
e-Stems.
51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -es, and are
decHned as follows : —
Dies, m,
,, day.
Res, f.,
, thing.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nojn. dies
dies
res
res
Gen. diei
dierum
rgl
rerum
Dat. die!
diebus
rgi
rebus
Ace. diem
dies
rem
res
Voc. dies
dies .
res
res
Abl. die
diebus
re
rebus
30 Inflections.
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.
52. I. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -§i,
instead of -ei, when a consonant precedes ; as, spei, rei, fidei.
2. A Genitive ending -i (for-ei) is found in plebi (from plebes =
plebs) in the expressions tribunus plebi, tribune of the people^ and
plebi scitum, decree of the people', sometimes also in other words.
3. A Genitive and Dative form in -e sometimes occurs ; as, acie.
4. With the exception of dies and res, most nouns of the Fifth
Declension are not declined in the Plural. But acies, series, species,
spes, and a few others, are used in the Nominative and Accusative
Plural.
Gender in the Fifth Declension.
53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except
dies, day, and nieridies, mid-day. But dies is sometimes Feminine
in the Singular, particularly when it means an appoitited day.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
54. Here belong -
1. Nouns used in the Singular only.
2. Nouns used in the Plural only.
3. Nouns used only in certain cases.
4. Indeclinable Nouns.
Nouns used in the Singular only.
55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification,
are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus : —
1. Proper names; as, Cicero, Cicero; Italia, Italy.
2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.
3. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, igtiorance; \ion\t2i'&, good-
ness.
4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural.
Thus : —
a) Proper names, — to denote different members of a family, or
specimens of a type ; as, Cicerones, the Ciceros ; Catones,
men like Cato.
Defective Nouns. 31
b) Names of materials, — to denote objects made of the mate-
rial, or different kinds of the substance ; as, aera, bronzes
{i.e. bronze figures) ; ligna, woods.
c) Abstract nouns, — to denote instances of the quality ; as,
ignorantiae, cases of igjtorance.
Nouns used in the Plural only.
56. Here belong —
1. Many geographical names; as, Thebae, Thebes; Leuctra,
Leuctra; Pompeji, Po7npeii.
2. Many names of festivals ; as, Megalesia, the Megalesian fes-
tival.
3. Many special words, of which the following are the most
important : —
angustiae, narrow pass. manes, spirits of the dead.
arma, weapons. minae, threats.
deliciae, delight. moenia, city walls.
divitiae, riches. nuptiae, 7narriage.
idus, Ides. poster!, descendants .
indutiae. truce. reliquiae, remainder.
insidiae, ambush. tenebrae, darkjiess.
majores, ancestors. verbera, blows.
Also in classical prose regularly —
cervices, neck. nares, nose.
fides, lyre. viscera, viscera.
Nouns used only in Certain Cases.
57. I. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth
Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular ; as, jussu, by the
order; injussu, without the order; natu, by birth.
2. Used in Two Cases.
a. Fors (chajice), Nom. Sing. ; forte, Abl. Sing.
b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing. ; sponte, Abl. Sing.
3. Used in Three Cases. Nemo, no one (Nom.), has also the
Dat. nemini and the Ace. neminem. The Gen. and Abl. are
supplied by the corresponding cases of nullus ; viz. nullius and
nullo.
32 Inflections.
4. Impetus has the Norn., Ace, and Abl. Sing., and the Norn,
and Ace. Plu. ; viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus.
5. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.
b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.
6. Opis, dapis, and frugis, — all lack the Nom. Sing.
7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu. ;
as, cor, lux, sol, aes, 6s (oris), rus, sal, tus.
Indeclinable Nouns.
58. Here belong —
fas, n., right. nefas, n., impiety.
instar, n., likeness. nihil, n., nothing.
mane, n., morning. secus, n., sex.
I . With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative,
]n the morning)., the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in
use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.
Heteroclites.
59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one
declension, and partly of another. Thus : —
1 . Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while
the Plural is of another ; as, —
vas, vasis (vessel) ; Plu., vasa, vasorum, vasis, etc.
jugerum, jiigeri {acre) ; Plu , jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc.
2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension,
have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus : —
a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also
a Nom. and Ace. of the Fifth; as, materies, materiem,
material, as well as materia, materiam.
b) Fames, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the
Abl. fame of the Fifth.
c) Requies, requietis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension,
takes an Ace. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requi-
etem.
d) Besides plebs, plebis, co7nmo7i people, of the Third Declen
sion, we find plebes, plebei (also plebi, see § 52. 2), of th*'
Fifth.
HeterogeneoiLS Nouns.
33
Heterogeneous Nouns.
60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus: —
1 . Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms, — one
Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um ; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield;
carrus, carrum, ca?'t.
2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in th'"
Plural ; as, —
SINGULAR.
balneum, n., bath;
epulum, n., feast;
frenum, n., bridle;
jocus, m.., Jest ;
locus, in., place;
rastrum, n., rake;
PLURAL.
balneae, f., bath-house.
epulae, f., feast.
freni, m. (rarely frena, n.), bridle.
joca, n. (also joci, m.), Jests.
loca, n., places; loci, va., passages
or topics in an author.
rastri, m. ; rastra, n., rakes.
a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case
of the first two examples above.
Plurals with Change of Meaning.
61. The following nouns have one meaning in the
Singular, and another in the Plural: — ■
SINGULAR.
aedes, temple;
auxilium, help ;
CdLXcex, priso7i;
castrum, fort;
copia, abundance ;
finis, end;
f ortiina, fortune ;
gratia, favor ;
impedimentum, hindrance;
littera, letter (of the alphabet);
mos, habit ^ custoin ;
opera, heip^ service;
(ops) opis, help •
pars, part ;
sal, salt ;
PLURAL.
aedes, house.
auxilia, auxiliary troops.
carceres, stalls for racing-chariots.
oastra, caitip.
copiae, troops, resources.
fines, borders, territory.
fortunae, possessions, wealth.
gratiae, thanks.
impedimenta, baggage.
litterae, epistle, literature,
mores, character.
operae, laborers.
opes, resources.
parte.3, party, role.
sales, wit.
34
Inflections.
B. ADJECTIVES.
62. Adjectives denote qjiality. They are declined like
nouns, and fall into two classes, —
1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.
2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.
ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND
DECLENSIONS.
63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer,
or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum.
Thus, Masculine like hortus : —
Bonus, good.
SINGULAR.
Masculine.
Feminine,
Neuter.
Nom.
bonus
bona
bonum
Gen.
boni
bonae
boni
Dat.
bono
bonae
bono
Ace.
bonum
bonam
bonum
Voc.
bone
bona
bonum
AM.
bono
bona
PLURAL.
bono
Nom.
boni
bonae
bona
Gen.
bonorum
bonarum
bonorum
Dat.
bonis
bonis
bonis
Ace.
bonos
bonas
bona
Voc.
boni
bonae
bona
Abl.
bonis
bonis
bonis
a. The Genitive Singular Masculine and Neuter of Adjectives
in -ins ends in -il (not in -I as in case of Nouns ; see § 25.
I ; 2). So also the Vocative Singular of such Adjectives
ends in -ie, not in -". Thus eximius forms Genitive
eximil ; Vocative eximie.
Adjectives of the First a7td Second Declensions. 35
64. Masculine like puer : —
Tener, tender.
SINGULAR.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
tener
tenera
tenerum
Gen.
teneri
tenerae
teneri
Dat.
tenero
tenerae
tenero
Ace.
tenerum
teneram
tenerum
Voc.
tener
tenera
tenerum
AM.
tenero
tenera
PLURAL.
tenero
Nom.
teneri
tenerae
tenera
Gen.
tenerorum
tenerarum
tenerorum
Dat.
teneris
teneris
teneris
Ace.
teneros
teneras
tenera
Voc.
teneri
tenerae
tenera
Abl.
teneris
teneris
teneris
65. Masculine like ager : —
Sacer, sacred.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
No7n.
sacer
sacra
sacrum
Gen.
sacri
sacrae
sacri
Dat.
sacro
sacrae
sacro
Ace.
sacrum
sacram
sacrum
Voc.
sacer
sacra
sacrum
Abl.
sacro
sacra
PLURAL.
sacro
Nom.
sacri
sacrae
sacra
Ge?t.
sacrorum
sacrarum
sacrorum
Dat.
sacris
sacris
sacris
Ace.
sacros
sacras
sacra
Voc.
sacri
sacrae
sacra
Abl.
sacris
sacris
sacris
I. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following
are declined like tener: asper, rough; lacer, torti; liber, /ree;
36
hiflections.
miser, wretched', -proB-per, prosperot^s ; compounds in -fer and -ger
sometimes dexter, right.
2. Satur, /////, is declined : satur, satura, saturum.
Nine Irregular Adjectives.
66. Here belong —
alius, a7tother; alter, the other;
ullus, afiy ; nuUus, none-,
uter, which? (of two); neuter, neither]
solus, atone ; totus,whote;
unus, one, alone.
They are declined as follows : —
SINGULAR.
Masculine
Feminine.
Neuter.
Norn.
alius
alia
aliud
Gen.
alterius
alterius
alterius ^
Dat.
alii
alii
alii
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
alium
aliam
aliud
alio
alia
alio
Nojn.
uter
utra
utrum
Gen.
utrius
utrius
utrius
Dat.
utri
utri
utri
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
utrum
utram
utrum
utro
utra
utro
I.
All these words lack the Vocative.
2.
Neuter
is decline
d like uter.
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter.
alter altera alterum
alterius alterius alterius
alter! alter! ^ alter!
alterum alteram alterum
altero altera
altero
totus
tota
totum
totius
totius
totius
tot!
tot!
t5t!
totum
totam
totum
toto
tota
toto
The Plural is re^
^ular.
ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
67. These fall into three classes, —
1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative
Singular, — one for each gender.
2. Adjectives of two terminations.
3. Adjectives of one termination.
1 This is almost always used instead of alius in the Genitive.
"^ A Dative Singular Feminine alterae also occurs.
Adjectives of the Third Declension.
37
a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words
mentioned below in § 70. i, all Adjectives of the Third
Declension follow the inflection of i-stems ; i.e. they have
the Ablative Singular in -1, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the
Accusative Plural in -is (as well as -es) in the Masculine
and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural
in -ia in Neuters.
Adjectives of Three Terminations.
68. These are declined as follows : —
Acer, sharp.
SINGULAR.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
acer
acris
acre
Gen.
acris
acris
acris
Dat.
acri
acri
acri
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
Voe.
acer
acris
acre
Abl.
acri
acri
PLURAL.
acri
Nom.
acres
acres
acria
Gen.
acrium
acrium
acrium
Dat.
acribus
acribus
acribus
Ace.
acres, -is
acres, -is
acria
Voe.
acres
acres
acria
Abl.
acribus
acribus
acribus
1. Like acer are declined alacer, lively; campester, level-, cele-
hex, fa?nous; equester, eqtcestrian ; paluster, inarshy ', pedester,
pedestrian ; puter, rotten ; saliiber, wholesome ; Silvester, woody ,'
terrester, terrestrial ', volucer, winged; also names of months in
-ber, as September.
2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift ^ retains the e before r, but lacks
the Genitive Plural.
3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Femi-
nine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true
of salubris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words
in the list, the use of the Feminine for the MascuKne is confined chiefly
to early and late Latin, and to poetry.
38
InJlectio7is.
Adjectives of Two Terminations.
69. These are declined as follows : —
Fortis,
stro7ig.
SINGULAR.
Fortior,
stronger
M. AND F.
Neut.
M. AND F.
Neut.
Nom.
fortis
forte
fortior
fortius
Cejt.
fortis
fortis
fortioris
fortioris
Dat.
forti
forti
fortiori
fortiori
Ace.
fortem
forte
fortiorem
fortius
Voc.
fortis
forte
fortior
fortius
Abl.
forti
forti
PLURAL.
fortidre, -i
fortiore, -i
Nom.
fortes
fortia
fortiores
fortiora
Gen.
fortium
fortium
fortiorum
fortiorum
Dat.
fortibus
fortibus
fortioribus
fortioribus
Ace.
fortes, -IS
fortia
fortiores, -is
fortiora
Voc.
fortes
fortia
fortiores
fortiora
Abl.
fortibus
fortibus
fortioribus
fortioribus
I. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are
regularly declined in the same way. The Ace. Plu. in -is is rare.
Adjectives of One Termination.
70.
Felix, happy.
Prudens,
prudetit.
SINGULAR
M, AND F.
Neut.
M. AND F.
Neut.
Nom.
fellx
fehx
prudens
prudens
Gen.
felTcis
felTcis
prudentis
prudentis
Dat.
felici
fehci
prudenti
priidenti
Ace.
felTcem
fellx
priidentem
prijde.is
Voc.
felix
felix
prudens
prudens
Abl.
felici
felici
PLURAL.
prudenti
prudenti
Nom.
fehces
fehcia
prudentes
priidentia
Gen.
fehcium
fehcium
prudentium
prudentium
Dat.
fellcibus
fehcibus
prudentibus
prudentibus
Ace.
fehces, -is
fehcia
prudentes, -is
priidentia
Voc.
fehcgs
fehcia
prudentes
priidentia
Abl.
fehcibus
fehcibus
prudentibus
prudentibus
Adjectives of the Third Declension.
39
Vetus,
old.
SINGULAR.
Plus,
more.
M. AND F.
Neut.
M. AND F.
Neut.
Norn.
vetus
vetus
plus
Gen.
veteris
veteris
pluris
Dat.
veteri
veteri
Ace.
veterem
vetus
plus
Voc.
vetus
vetus
AM.
vetere
vetere
PLURAL.
plure
Norn.
veteres
Vetera
plures
plura
Gen.
veterum
veterum
plurium
plurium
Dat.
veteribus
veteribus
pluribus
pluribus
Ace.
veteres
Vetera
plures, -IS
plura
Voc.
veteres
Vetera
Abl.
veteribus
veteribus
pluribus
pluribus
1 . It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-
Stem ; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative
Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in
-es only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dives,
rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; princeps, chief; sospes,
safe; superstes, surviving. Yet dives always has Neut. Plu. ditia.
2. Inops, needy., and memor, jnijidfnl, have Ablative Singular
inopT, memorl, but Genitive Plural inopum, mem.orum.
3. Participles in -ans and -ens follow the declension of i-stems.
But they do not have -I in the Ablative, except when employed as adjec-
tives ; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e ; as, —
a sapient! viro, by a wise man ; but
a sapiente, by a philosopher ;
Tarquinio regnante, under the reign of Tarquin.
4. Plus, in the Singular, is always a noun.
5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives, —
a) usually retain the adjective declension ; as, —
aequalis, contemporary, Abl. aequali.
consularis, ex-consid, Abl. consular!.
So names of Months ; as, Apr!l!, April; Decembr!, De-
cember.
b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative
Singular ; as, Celere, Celer ; Juvenale, Juvenal.
40 Inflections.
c) Patrials in -as, -atis and -is, -itis, when designating places,
regularly have -i ; as, in Arpinati, on the estate at Arpmum ;
yet -e, when used of persons ; as, ab Arpinate, dy an Arpi-
natian.
6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are
frugi, frugal^ nequam, worthless.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
71. I. There are three degrees of Comparison, — the
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior
(Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um),
to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel ; as, — •
altus, high., altior, higher., altissimus, \ ^S ^^ •>
I very high.
fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus.
felTx, fortunate, felTcior, felTcissimus.
dives, rich, dlvitior, dlvitissimus.
So also Participles, when used as Adjectives ; as, —
doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus.
egens, needy, egentior, egentissimus.
3- Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to
the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus : —
asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus.
pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus.
acer, sharp, acrior, acerrimus.
celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus.
pauper, poor, pauperior, pauperrimus.
a. Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or matiirrimus.
4. Five Adjectives in -ills form the Superlative by adding -limus
to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Compara-
tive is regular. Thus : —
facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus.
difficilis, dificult, difficilior, difficillimus.
similis, like, similior, simillimus.
dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus.
humilis, low, humilior, humillimus.
Comparison of Adjectives.
4i
5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus, form the Comparative
and Superlative as though from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens.
Thus : —
maledicentissimus.
magnificentissimus.
benevolentissimus.
maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior,
magnificus, 7nag?ii/icent, magnificentior,
benevolus, kindly, benevolentior,
a. Positives in -dicens and -volens occur in early Latin ; as,
maledloens, benevolens.
Irregular Comparison.
72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Compari-
son ; VIZ.
bonus, good,
melior.
optimus.
malus, bad,
pejor,
pessimus.
parvus, small.
minor.
minimus.
magnus, large.
major.
maximus.
multus, much.
plus,
plurimus.
frugi, thrifty,
frugalior.
frugalissimus.
nequam, worthless.
nequior.
nequissimus.
I . Observe
that the i
L of -ior becomes j-
— between vowels — in pejor
and major.
Defective Comparison.
73. I. Positive lacking entirely, —
(Cf. prae, in front of.') prior, former, primus, first.
citerior, on this side, citimus, 7iear.
ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest.
interior, ijuter, intimus, inmost.
propior, nearer, proximus, nearest.
deterior, inferior, deterrimus, worst.
(Cf. citra, this side of.)
(Cf. ultra, beyond.)
(Cf. intra, within.)
(Cf prope, Jtear.)
(Cf. de, down.)
(Cf. archaic potis, possibU.) potior, preferable, potissimus, chief est.
2. Positive occurring only in special cases, —
postero die, anno, etc.,
the following day, etc.,
posterT, descendants,
exterl, foreigners,
natidnes exterae, for-
eign nations.
posterior, later.
exterior, outer.
latest,
postremus,|^^^^^
1 r late-born,
\V^^^^^^^.\ posthumous,
\ extremus, ]
1 . . I outennost.
extimus, J
42
Inflections,
inf en, gods of the lower world,
Mare Inferum, Mediterranean \ inferior, lower,
Sea,
imus, J
I supremus, last.
super!, gods above, 1 . i supremus, last.
Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea, J superior, higher, | ^^^^^^^ highest.
3. Comparative lacking.
vetus, old, 1 veterrimus.
fidus, faithful, f idissimus.
novus, ;^^w, ^ novissimus,^ /^j/.
sacer, sacred, sacerrimus.
falsus, false, falsissimus.
Also in some other words less frequently used.
4. Superlative lacking.
alacer, lively,
ingens, great,
salutaris, wholesome,
alacrior,
ingentior,
saliitarior.
juvenis, young,
senex, old,
jiinior,
senior.
4
5
a. The Superlative is lacking also in many
-ilis, -ilis, -bilis, and in a few others.
adjectives in -alis,
Comparison by Magis and Maxime.
74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational compari-
son, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by
prefixing magis {inoi^e) and maxime {inost). Here belong —
1. Many adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -ious, -imus,
-inus, -orus.
2. Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, adapted)
arduus, steep; necessarius, necessary.
a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule.
The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.
1 Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus.
2 Supplied by recentior.
3 For newest, recentissimus is used.
4 Supplied by minimus natu.
5 Supplied by maximus natu.
Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs, 43
Adjectives not admitting Comparison.
75. Here belong —
1 . Many adjectives which, from the nature of their sigaification, do
not admit of comparison ; as, hodiernus, of to-day, annuus, annual ',
mortalis, mortal.
2. Some special words ; as, mirus, gnarus, merus ; and a few others.
FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjec-
tives, and depend upon them for their comparison.
1. Adver*bs derived from adjectives of the First and
Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -1 of
the Genitive Singular to -e ; those derived from adjectives
of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive
Singular to -iter ; as, —
earns, care, dearly;
pulcher, pulchre, beautifidly ;
acer, acriter, fiercely ;
levis, leviter, lightly.
a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -ter (instead
of -iter), to form the Adverb ; as, —
sapiens, sapienter, wisely,
audax, audacter, boldly;
sollers, sollerter, skillfully.
2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accu-
sative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective ; while the
Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -i of the Genitive
Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -e. Thus —
(earns)
care, dearly,
carius,
carissime.
(pulcher)
pulchre, beautifidly,
pulchrius.
pulcherrime.
(acer)
acriter, fiercely,
acrius.
acerrime.
(levis)
leviter, lightly,
levius.
levissime.
(sapiens)
sapienter, wisely.
sapientius,
sapientissime.
(audax)
audacter, boldly,
audacius,
audacissime.
44
Inflections.
Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.
77. I.
bene, well, melius,
male, ///, pejus,
magnopere, greatly, magis,
multum, much, plus,
nonmultum,j^^.^^^^^ minus,
parum, J
did, long, diutius,
nequiter, 7Vorthlessly, nequius,
saepius.
optime.
pessime.
maxime.
plurimum.
minime.
saepe, ofteji,
mature, betimes,
prope, near,
nuper, recently,
secus, otherwise,
matunus,
propius,
potius, rather.
prius, j^^^^^'^^^'^->'' I prlmum, first,
\ before, j
setius, less.
diutissime.
nequissime.
saepissime.
maturrime,
maturissime.
proxime.
nuperrime.
potissimum, especially.
2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions
form an Adverb in -6, instead of -e ; as, —
crebro, frequently ; falso, falsely ;
continue, immediately ; subito, suddenly ;
rar5, rarely; and a few others.
a. cito, quickly, has -6.
3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the
Positive of the Adverb ; as, —
multum, much;
paulum, little;
minimum, least;
facile, easily.
4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the
Positive in -iter ; as, —
firmus, firmiter, firmly ;
largus, largiter, copiously ;
a. violentus has violenter.
hiimanus, humaniter, /z«;;/^;^/)/;
alius, aliter, otherwise.
5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of
which are -tus and -tim ; as, antiquitus, anciently ; paulatim,
gradually.
Numerals,
45
NUMERALS.
78. Numerals may be divided into —
I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising —
a. Carditmls; as, unus, ^;/^; duo, /w^; etc.
b. Ordinals; as, primus, y^rj/ ; secundus, j-^^<?;z^; etc.
c. Distributives; 3.s, sinQnli, one by one ; hini, two by two ; etc.
II. Numeral Adverbs ; as, semel, 07ice; bis, twice; etc.
79. Table of Numeral Adjectives and Adverbs.
Cardinals.
Ordinals.
Distributives.
Adverbs.
I.
2.
unus.una.unum
duo, duae, duo
primus.yfrj/
secundus, second
singuli, one by one
binl, two by two
semel
bis
3-
tres, tria
tertius, third
term (trim)
ter
4-
5.
6.
quattuor
quinque
sex
quartus, fourth
quint us, yf/?/4
sextus
quaterni
quini
sen!
quater
quinquies
sexies
7-
8.
septem
octo
Septimus
octavus
septeni
oct5ni
septies
octies
9-
novem
nonus
noveni
novies
lo.
decern
decimus
deni
decies
II.
undecim
ilndecimus
undeni
iindecies
12.
duodecim
duodecimus
duodeni
duodecies
13-
tredecim
tertius decimus
terni denI
terdecies
14-
15-
quattuordecim
quindecim
quartus decimus
quintus decimus
quaterni deni
quInI denI
quaterdecies
quinquies decies
i6.
( sedecim \
\ sexdecim '
sextus decimus
seni denI
sexies decies
17-
i8.
septendecim
duodeviginti
Septimus decimus
duodevicesimus
septeni deni
duodevlcenl
septies decies
octies decies
19.
undevTgintI
undevlcesimus
TJndevIcenl
novies decies
20.
vTgintT
vicesimus
viceni
vicies
21.
( vTgintI unus
\ unus et viginti
vicesimus primus
unus et vicesimus
viceni singuli
singuli et viceni
[ vicies semel
22.
( vIgintI duo
( duo et viginti
vicesimus secundus
alter et vicesimus
viceni bini
binl et viceni
1 vicies bis
30.
triginta
tricesimus
triceni
tricies
40.
quadraginta
quadragesimus
quadrageni
quadragies
SO.
quTnquaginta
qulnquagesimus
quinquageni
quinquagies
60.
sexaginta
sexagesimus
sexageni
sexagies.
70.
80.
septuaginta
octoginta
septuagesimus
octogesimus
septuageni
octogeni
septuagies
octogies
90.
nonaginta
nonagesimus
nonageni
nonagies
ICXD.
centum
centesimus
centeni
centies
46
Inflections.
Cardinals.
Ordinals.
Distributives.
Adverbs.
lOI. ■
1
( centum unus
! centum et unus
centesimus primus
centesimus et primui
centeni singuli
i centeni et singuli
1 centies semel
200.
ducenti, -ae, -a
ducentesimus
duceni
ducenties
300.
trecentl
trecentesimus
treceni
trecenties
400.
quadringenti
quadringentesimus
quadringeni
quadringenties
500.
qulngenti
quingentesimus
quingeni
quingenties
600.
sescenti
sescentesimus
sesceni
sescenties
700.
septingenti
septingentesimus
septingeni
septingenties
800.
octingenti
octingentesimus
octingeni
octingenties
900.
nSngenti
nongentesimus
nongeni
nongenties
1,000.
mllle
millesimus
singula millia
millies
2,000.
duo mlllia
bis millesimus
bina millia
bis millies
100,000.
centum miUia
centies millesimus
centena millia
centies millies
1,000,000.
decies centena
decies centies mille-
decies centena
decies centies
millia
simus
millia
millies
Note
. ensimus
and -iens are often written in
the numerals
instead of -esimus an
id -ies.
Declension of the Cardinals.
80. I. The declension of unus has already been given under § 66.
2. Duo is declined as follows : —
Noni.
duo
duae
duo
Gen.
duo rum
duarum
duorum
Dat.
duo bus
duabus
duobus
Ace.
duos, duo
duas
duo
AM.
duobus
duabus
duobus
a. So ambo, both, except that its final o is long.
Tres is declined, —
Norn.
tres
tria
Gen.
trium
trium
Dat.
tribus
tribus
Ace.
tres (tris)
tria
AM.
tribus
tribus
4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of
bonus.
5. Mllle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable.
In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects
enumefated ; § 201. i), and is declined, —
No7n.
Gen.
Dat.
millia
millium
mlllibus
Ace.
Voe.
AM.
millia
mlllia
mlllibus
Numerals. 47
Thus mille homines, a thousand men] but duo millia hominum,
two thousand ?nen, literally two thousands of men.
a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction ;
as, mille hominum.
6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives
are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.
Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.
81. I. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either
with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et
is used. Thus : —
triginta sex or sex et triginta, thirty-six.
2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed
by subtraction ; as, —
duodeviginti, eighteen (but also octodecim) ;
undequadraginta, thirty-nine (but also triginta novem or novem
et triginta) .
3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first;
the others follow without et ; as, —
centum .viginti septem, one hundred and twenty -seven.
anno millesimo octingentesimo octogesimo secundo, in the year
1882.
Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or
one of the tens ; as, —
centum et septem, one hundred and seven ;
centum et quadraginta, one hundred and forty.
4. The Distributives are used —
«) To denote so 7na7iy each, so many apiece ; as, —
bina talenta iis dedit, he gave them two talents each.
b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but
Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense ; as, —
binae litterae, two epistles.
But in such cases, iini (not singuli) is regularly employed
for o?ie, and trinl (not term) for three ; as, —
unae litterae, one epistle.
trinae litterae, three epistles.
c) In multiplication ; as, —
bis bIna sunt quattuor, twice two are four.
48
Inflections.
C. PRONOUNS.
82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something with-
out naming it.
83. There are the following classes of pronouns : —
I. Personal. V. Intensive.
II. Reflexive. VI. Relative.
III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative.
IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
84. These correspond to the English /, yon, he, she, it,
etc., and are declined as follows : —
Fi?'st Person.
Second Person.
Third Person. *
SINGULAR.
Norn.
ego,/
tu, thoii
is, he; ea, she; id, //
Gen.
mei
tul
(For declension see § 87.)
Dat.
mihii
tibii
Ace.
me
te
Voc.
tu
AM.
me
te
PLURAL.
Nom.
nos, we
vos, you
Gen. -
[ nostrum
t nostri
r vestrum
L vestrT
Dat.
nobis
vobTs
Ace.
nos
v5s
Voe.
vos
Abl.
nobis
vobTs
1 . A Dative Singular mi occurs in poetry.
2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet,
I myself ; tibimet, to you yourself ; tu has tute and tutemet (written
also tutimet) .
1 The final i is sometimes long in poetry.
Pronouns. 49
3. In early Latin, med and ted occur as Accusative and Ablative
forms.
II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause
in which they stand ; like myself, yourself, in '/ see myself,'
etc. They are declined as follows : —
First Per s 071.
Secojtd Person.
Third Person.
Supplied by oblique
cases of egO.
Supplied by oblique
cases of tii.
Gen.
Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
AM.
mei, of myself
mihi, to myself
me, myself
tuT, of thyself
tibi, to thyself
te, thyself
SUl
Sibil
se or sese
me, with myself, etc.
te, with thyself, etc.
se or sese
1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for
both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of hi7nself, herself, itself or of
themselves ; and so with the other forms.
2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force ;
^^' inter se pugnant, they fight with each other.
3. In early Latin, sed occurs as Accusative and Ablative.
III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are —
First Person. Second Person.
meus, -a, -um, 7)iy -, tuus, -a, -um, thy,
noster, nostra, nostrum, our; vester, vestra, vestrum, j^^/r ;
Third Person.
suus, -a, -um, his, her, its, their.
I . Suus is exclusively Reflexive ; as, —
pater suos liberos amat, the father loves his children.
Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singu-
lar of is, viz. ejus ; and their, by the Genitive Plural, eorum, earum.
1 The final i is sometimes long in poetry.
so
Inflections.
2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi.
3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the
Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly
common in case of suo- sua ; as, suopte, suapte.
IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
87. These point out an object as here or there, or as
previously mentioned. They are — -
hic, this (where I am) ;
iste, that (where you are) ;
ille, that (something distinct from the speaker) ;
is, that (weaker than ille) ;
Idem, the sajfie.
HIo, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First,
Second, and Third Persons respectively.
Hic, this.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Masculine
Feminine. Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
No7n
. hici
haec hoc
hi
hae
haec
Gen.
hujus -
hujus hijjus
horum
harum
horum
Dat.
huic
huic huic
his
his
his
Ace.
hunc
hanc hoc
hos
has
haec
Abl.
hoc
hac hoc
Iste, that,
SINGULAR.
his
that of yours.
his
PLURAL.
his
Masculine
. Feminine. Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom
. iste
ista istud^
isti
istae
ista 3
Gen.
istius
istius istius
istonim
istarum
istorum
Dat.
isti
isti isti
istis
istis
istis
Ace.
istum
istam istud
istos
istas
ista 3
Abl.
isto
ista isto
istis
istis
istis
Ille
(archaic
olle), that., that one, he, is decline
d like iste
4
1 The vowel is sometimes short in poetry, — hIc.
2 Forms of hic ending in -s sometimes append -ce for emphasis; as, hujusce,
this . . . here; hosce, hisce. When -ne is added, -ce becomes -ci ; as, hoscine.
3 For istud, isttic sometimes occurs ; for ista, istaec,
4 For illud, illuc sometimes occurs.
The Intensive Pronoun. — The Relative PronotL)
51
Is, he^ this, that.
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
NOJU.
is
ea
id
ei, il, (I)
eae
ea
Gen.
ejus
ejus
ejus
eorum
earum
eorum
Dat.
ei
el
ei
els, ils
eis, ils
els, ils
Ace.
eum
earn
id
eos
eas
ea
Abl.
eo
ea
eo
idem, the
els, ils
same.
els, ils
eis, ils
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
idem
eadem
idem
' eidem 1
ildem |
eorunden
eaedem
eadem
Gen.
ejusderr
I ejusdem
ejusdem
1 earundem
eorundem
Dat.
eidem
eidem
eidem
elsdem
eTsdem
eTsdem
Ace.
eundem
eandem
idem
eosdem
easdem
eadem
Abl.
eodem
eadem
eodem
eisdem
eisdem
eTsdem
The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has idem, and the Dat, Abl. Plu. isdem or iisdem
V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.
88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corre-
sponds to the EngHsh myself, etc., in ' I myself , lie Jiimself.'
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
Masculine
Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom. ipse
ipsa
ipsum
ipsT
ipsae
ipsa
Gen. ipsTus
ipsTus
ipslus
ipsorum
ipsarum
ipsorum.
Dat. ipsT
ipsT
ipsT
ipsTs
ipsTs
ipsTs
Ace. ipsum
ipsam
ipsum
ipsos
ipsas
ipsa
Abl. ipso
ipsa
ipso
ipsTs
ipsTs
ipsis
VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
89. The Relative Pronoun is qui, ■:£//^<?. It is declined: —
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
Masculine
. Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom. qui
• quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Gen. ciijus
cujus
cujus
quorum
quarum
quorum
Dat. cui
cui
cui
quibus 2
quibus 2
quibus 2
Ace. quem
quam
quod
quos
quas
quae
Abl. quo 1
qua^
quo!
quibus 2
quibus '^
quibus 2
1 An Ablative qui occurs in quicum.
2 Sometimes qms.
52
Inflections.
VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, ivho .
stantive) and qui, what? what kind off (adjective).
I . Quis, ivho ?
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Masc. and Fem. Neuter.
(sub-
Nom.
quis
Gen.
cujus
Dat.
cui
Ace.
quem
Abl.
quo
The rare Plural
follows the de-
clension of the
Relative Pronoun.
quid
ciijus
cui
quid
quo
2. qui, what? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Rela-
tive Pronoun ; viz. qui, quae, quod, ete.
a. An old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense of how?
b. Qui is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.
e. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes
an adjective. But in such cases quis homo = what 7nan?
whereas qui homo = wJiat sort of a man ?
d. Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus : — ■
Substantive, quisnam, who, pray? quidnam, what, pray?
Adjective. quinam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind, pray?
VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
91. These have the general force of some 07ie, any one.
M. AND F.
quis,
aliquis,
quisquam,
quispiam,
quisque,
SUBSTANTIVES.
Neut.
quid,
anyone,
anything.
aliquid,
S07nething.
quidquam,
j anyone,
\ anything^
• J . anyoJie,
quidpiam, \ -^ ,, .
( anything.
quidque, each.
quivis, quaevis, quidvis, ^ ,\
,-, • ,,M \ anything
quilibet, quaehbet, quidlibet, 'y ^,^^ ^ .;^_
' a certain
4uldam,quaedam, quiddam, -{ person,
, or thino-.
Masc
qui,
ADJECTIVES.
Fem. Neut.
quae ^r qua, qviod.,any.
aliqui aliqua, aliquod, any.
No corresponding adjective.
quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, any.
quisque, quaeque, quodque, each.
quivis, quaevis, quodvis,
any
you
quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet, • t
quidam, quaedam, quoddam
a cer-
tain.
Indefinite Pronouns. — Pronominal Adjectives. 53
1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined.
Thus : Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet, etc.
2. Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Femi-
nine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Qui has
both qua and quae in these same cases.
3. Quidam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam ; Geni-
tive Plural quorundam, quarundam ; the m being assimilated to n
before d.
4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliqui sub-
stantively.
5. In combination with ne, si, nisi, num, either quis or qui may
stand as a Substantive. Thus : si quis or si qui.
6. Ecquis, anyone^ though strictly an Indefinite, generally has
interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms, —
substantive, ecquis, ecquid ; adjective, ecqui, ecquae and ecqua,
ecquod.
7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.
8. There are two Indefinite Relatives, — quicumque and quisquis,
whoever. Quicumque declines only the first part ; quisquis declines
both, but has only quisquis, quidquid, quoquo in common use.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pro-
nominal force : —
1 . alius, another ; alter, the other ;
uter, -which of two? (interr.) ; neuter, n'either ;
whichever of two (rel.) ;
unus, one-, niillus, no one (in oblique cases).
2. The compounds, —
uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of tiuo ;
utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whoever of two;
uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either one yoii please] ■
utervis, utravis, utrunivis, either one yon please;
alteruter^ alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.
In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains
unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both
parts ; as, —
Norn, alteruter altera utra alterum utrum
Gen. alterius utrius e/c.
54 Inflections.
Chapter II. — Conjugation.
93. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.
94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and
Person :
1. Two Voices, — Active and Passive.
2. Three Moods, — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
3- Six Tenses, —
Present, Perfect,
Imperfect, Pluperfect,
Future, Future Perfect.
But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect ; while the
Imperative employs only the Present and Future.
4. Two Numbers, — Singular and Plural.
5. Three Persons, — First, Sjcond, and Third.
95. These make up the so-called Fini-'c Verb. Besides
this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms: —
1. Noun Forms, — Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.
2, Adjective Forms, — Participles (including the Gerundive).
96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are, —
Active.
Passive.
Sing. I.
2.
3-
-6; -m; -1 (Perf. Ind.);
-s; -sti (Perf. Ind.); -to or
wanting (Impv.) ;
-t; -t6(Impv.);
-r.
-ris, -re ; -re, -tor (Impv.).
-tur; -tor (Impv.).
Plu. I.
-mus ;
-mur.
2.
-tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.); -te,
-mini.
3-
-tote (Impv.);
-nt; -erunt (Perf. Ind.); -nto
(Impv.);
-ntur ; -ntor (Impv.).
VERB-STEMS.
97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings
to the Stem We distinguish three different stems in a
fully inflected verb, —
Verb- St ems. — The Four Conjugations. 55
Present Stem, from which are formed —
1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, 1
2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, | Active and Pas-
3. The Imperative, [ sive.
4. The Present Infinitive, J
5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive.
1 . Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 1
2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, ^ Active.
3. Perfect Infinitive, J
III. Participial Stem, from which are formed —
1 . Perfect Participle, ■]
2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 1 poggi^^g
3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, j
4. Perfect Infinitive, J
Apparently from the same stem, though really of different ori-
gin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive
Active and Passive.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, dis-
tinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination
of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows : —
JUGATION.
Infinitive
Termination.
Distinguishing
Vowel.
I.
-are
a
II.
-ere
e
III.
-gre
g
IV.
-ire
i
99. Principal Parts. The Present Indicative, Present
Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle^
constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb, — so called
because they contain the different stems, from which the
full conjugation of the verb may be derived.
1 Where the Perfect Participle is not in use, the Future Active Participle, if it
occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts.
56
Inflections.
CONJUGATION OF SUM.
100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the
conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given
at the outset.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Fut. Partic.^
sum esse fui futurus
SINGULAR.
sum, I a7n^
es, thou art,
est, he is :
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
PLURAL.
sumus, -we are,
estis, yo7i are,
sunt, they are.
eram, I was,
eras, tJioii wast,
erat, he was ;
ero, / shall be,
eris, thou wilt be,
erit, he luill be ;
LMPERFECT.
eramus, we were,
eratis, you were,
erant, they were.
Future.
erimus, we shall be,
eritis, you will be,
erunt, they will be.
Perfect.
fui, / have been, I was, fuimus, we have been, we were,
fuisti, thou hast been, thou wast, fuistis, you have- been, you were,
fu erunt,
fuere.
fuit, he has been, he was ,
they have been, they were
fueram, / had been,
fueras, thou hadst been,
fuerat, he had been :
Pluperfect.
fueramus, we had been,
fueratis, you had beeti,
fuerant, they had bee ft.
Future Perfect.
fuero, I shall have been, fuerimus, we shall have been,
fueris, thou wilt have beefi, fueritis, you will have been,
fuerit, he will have been ; fuerint, they will have been.
1 The Perfect Participle is wanting in sura.
Conjiigatio7i of Sum. 57
SUBJUNCTIVE.i
Present.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
sim, 7nay I be, simus, let tis be,
SIS, 7nayst thou be, sitis, be ye, may you bey
sit, let hii)i be, may he be; sint, let thejii be.
Imperfect.
essem,2 / should be, essemus, we should be^
esses, '-^ thou wouldst be, essetis, you would be,
esset,^ ]ie would be ; ^ essent,^ they would be.
Perfect.
fuerim, / may have been, fuerimus, we may have been,
fueris, thou mayst have been, fueritis, you 7nay have been,
fuerit, he may have been; fuerint, they may have been.
Pluperfect.
fuissem, / should have beeji, fuissemus, we should have been,
fuisses, thou wouldst have been, fuissetis, you would have beeji,
fuisset, he would have been ; fuissent, they would have been.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. es, be thou, este, be ye.
Fut. esto, thou shall be, estote, ye shall be,
esto, he shall be; sunto, they shall be.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. esse, to be.
Perf. fuisse, to have been.
Fut. futurus esse,3 to be about to be. Fut. futurus,^ about to be.
1 The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so
varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give
them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax.
2 For essem, esses, esset, essent, the forms forem, fores, foret,
lorent are sometimes used.
3 For futurus esse the form fore is often used.
* Declined like bonus, -a, -um.
58
Inflections.
101.
FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION.
Active Voice. — Amo, / love.
Pres. Ind.
amo
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind.
amare amavi
Perf. Pass. Partic.
amatus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.
amo, / love.,
amas, yon love,
amat, he loves;
amabam, I was loving^
amabas, yon were lovitig^
amabat, he was loving]
amabo, I shall love,
amabis, you will love,,
amabit, he will love ;
PLURAL.
amamus, we love,
amatis, yoii love,
am ant, Ihey love.
Imperfect.
amabamus, we were loving,
amabatis, yon were loving,
amabant, they wcre loving.
Future.
amabimus, we shall love,
amabitis, you will love,
amabunt, they will love.
Perfect.
amavi, / have loved, I loved, amavimus, we have loved, we loved,
amavisti, yon have loved, you amavistis, /<?;/ have loved, you loved,
loved,
amavit, he has loved, he loved; amaverunt, -ere, they have loved, they
loved.
Pluperfect.
amaveram, I had loved,
amaveras, you had loved,
amaverat, he had loved;
amaveramus, we had loved,
amaveratis, yon had loved,
am aver ant, they had loved.
Future Perfect.
amavero, / shall have loved, amaverimus, we shall have loved,
amaveris, you will have loved, amaveritis, yoic will have loved,
amaverit, he will have loved; amaverint, they will have loved.
First Conjugation.
59
SINGULAR.
amem, 7nay I love,
anies, may you love,
amet, let him love]
amarem, I should love,
amares, yoii would love,
amaret, he would love;
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
PLURAL.
amemus, let us love,
ametis, 7nay you love,
ament, let them love.
Imperfect.
am ar emus, we should love,
amaretis, you woidd love,
amarent, they woidd love.
Perfect.
amaverim, / inay have loved, amaverimus, we may have loved,
amaveris, you uiay have loved, amaveritis, yo2i may have loved,
amaverit, he may have loved; amaverint, they may have loved.
Pluperfect.
amavissem, I shoidd have loved, 2.mdiViBseraMS,we shotdd have loved,
amavisses, you would have loved, amavissetis, yoii would have loved,
amavisset, he would have loved; amavissent, they would have loved.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. ama, love thou ; amate, love ye.
Fut. amato, thou shall love, amatote, ye shall love,
amato, he shall love ; amanto, they shall love.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. amans,! loving.
Pres. am are, to love.
Pe?'f. amavisse, to have loved. {C&n. amantis)
Fut. amaturus esse, io be about Fut. amaturus, about to love,
to love.
GERUND.
Gen. amandi, of loving,
Dat. amando, for lovmg.
Ace. amandum, loving,
Abl. amando, by loving.
SUPINE.
Ace. amatum, to love.
1 For declension of amans, see § 70. 3.
6o
Inflections.
102.
FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION.
Passive Voice. — Amor, I a7n loved.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
RES. InD.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
amor
amari
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
amatus sum
SINGULAR.
I am loved.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
I am loved.
PLURAL.
amor
amamur
amaris
amamini
amatur
Imperfect.
/ was loved.
amantur
amabar
amabamur
amabaris, or -re
amabamini
amabatur
Future.
I shall be loved.
amabantur
amabor
amabimur
amaberis, or -re
amabimini
amabitur
Perfect.
amabuntur
/ have been loved or / was loved.
amatus (-a. -um)
sumi
amati (-ae, -a) sumus
amatus es
amati estis
amatus est
Pluperfect.
/ had been loved.
amati sunt
amatus eram ^
amati eramus
amatus eras
amati eratis
amatus erat
Future Perfect.
amati erant
/ shall have been loved.
amatus ero ^
amati erimus
amatus eris
amati eritis
amatus erit
amati erunt
1 Fui, fuisti. etc., are sometimes u^'^n Um sum. es, etc.
etc., for eram, etc. ; fuero, etc., for ero. etc.
So fueram. fueras,
First Conjugation.
6i
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I be loved, let htjn be loved.
SINGULAR, PLURAL.
amer amemur
ameris, or -re amemini
ametur amentur
Imperfect.
/ should be loved, he wotdd be loved.
amarer
amareris, or -re
amaretur
amaremur
amaremini
amarentur
Perfect.
/ may have beett loved.
amatus sim ^
amatus sis
amatus sit
amati simus
amati sitis
amati sint
Pluperfect.
/ should have been loved., he woidd have been loved.
amatus essem ^ amati essemus
amatus esses amati essetis
amatus esset amati essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. amare, be thou loved; amamini, be ye loved.
Flit, amator, thou shall be loved,
amator, he shall be loved; amantor, they shall be loved.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
P?-es. amari, to be loved.
Per/, amatus esse, to have been Perfect. amatus, having been
loved. loved.
Fid. amatum iri, to be about to Gericndive. amandus, to be loved,
be loved. deserving to be
loved.
1 Fuerim, etc., are sometimes used for sim ; so fuissem, etc., for essem.
62
Inflections.
103.
SECOND (OR E-) CONJUGATION.
Active Voice. — Moneo, I advise.
Pres. Ind.
moneo
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Pass. Partic
monere monui monittis
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.
moneo
mones
monet
/ advise.
Imperfect.
PLURAL.
monemus
monetis
monent
/
monebam
monebas
monebat
was advising., or / advised.
monebamus
monebatis
monebant
Future.
monebo
monebis
monebit
/ shall advise.
monebimus
monebitis
monebunt
Perfect.
/ have advised, or / advised.
monui monuimus
monuisti monuistis
monuit monuerunt, or
Pluperfect.
/ had advised.
monueram
monueras
monuerat
monuero
monueris
monuerit
monueramus
monueratis
monuerant
Future Perfect.
/ shall have advised.
monuerimus
monueritis
monuerint
-ere
Second Conjugation.
63
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I advise, let him advise.
SINGULAR.
moneam
moneas
moneat
PLURAL.
moneamus
moneatis
moneant
Imperfect.
/ should advise, he would advise.
monerem moneremus
moneres moneretis
moneret monerent
Perfect.
/ may have advised.
monuerim monuerimus
monueris monueritis
monuerit monuerint
Pluperfect.
/ should have advised, he would have advised.
monuissem monuissemus
monuisses monuissetis
monuisset monuissent
IMPERATIVE.
monete, advise ye.
Fut. moneto, thou shall advise, monetote, ye shall advise,
moneto, he shall advise ; monento, they shall advise.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. monere, to advise.
Per/, monuisse, to have advised.
Fut. moniturus esse, to be about
to advise.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. monens, advisijig.
(Gen. monentis.)
Fut. moniturus, about to advise.
GERUND.
Gen. monendi, of advising,
Dat. monendo, for advising,
Ace. monendum, advising,
Abl. monendo, by advising'
SUPINE.
Ace. monitum, to advise.
4bl. monitu, to advise^ be advisea
64
Inflections.
SECOND (OR E-) CONJUGATION.
104. Passive Voice. — Moneor, I am advised.
Pres. Ind.
moneor
SINGULAR.
moneor
moneris
monetur
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Inf.
moneri
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
[am advised.
Imperfect.
I was advised.
monebar
monebaris, or -re
monebatur
Perf. Ind.
monitus sum
PLURAL.
moneniur
monemini
monentur
monebamur
monebamini
monebantur
Future.
/ shall be advised.
monebimur
monebimini
monebuntur
monebor
moneberis, ^r-re
monebitur
Perfect.
I have been advised., I was advised.
monitus sum moniti sumus
monitus es moniti estis
monitus est moniti sunt
Pluperfect. ,
/ had been advised.
monitus eram
monitus eras
monitus erat
moniti eramus
moniti eratis
moniti erant
Future Perfect.
/ shall have beefi advised.
monitus ero
monitus eris
monitus erit
moniti erimus
moniti eritis
moniti erunt
Second Co7tj ligation.
65
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I be advised, let him be advised.
PLURAL.
moneamur
moneamini
moneantur
SINGULAR.
monear
monearis, or -re
moneatur
Imperfect.
/ should be advised, he would be advised.
monerer
monereris, or -re
moneretur
moneremur
moneremini
monerentur
Perfect.
/ may have been advised.
monitus sim moniti simus
monitus sis moniti sitis
monitus sit moniti siiit
Pluperfect.
/ should have been advised, he would have been advised.
monitus essem moniti essemus
moniti essetis
monitus esses
monitus esset
moniti essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. monere, be thou advised; monemini, be ye advised.
Fut. monetor, thou shall be ad-
vised,
monetor, he shall be advised.
monentor, they shall be advised.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. moneri, to be advised.
Per/, monitus esse, to have been
advised.
Fut. monituni irT, to be about to
be advised.
PARTICIPLE.
-^
Perfect. monitus, advised.
Gerundive, monendus, to be ad-
vised, deserving; to
bn advised.
66
Inflections.
THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.
105. Active Voice. — Rego, / rule.
Pres. Ind.
rego
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Pass. Partic.
regere rexi rectus
INDICATIVE MOO
D.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.
/ rule.
PLURAL.
rego
regimus
regis
regitis
regit
regunt
Imperfect.
I was ruling., or / ruled.
regebam
regebamus
regebas
regebatis
regebat
Future.
/ shall rule.
regebant
regam
regemus
reges
regetis
reget
Perfect,
regent
I have ruled, or I ruled.
rexi
reximus
rexisti
rexistis
rexit
Pluperfect.
/ had ruled.
rexerunt, or -ere
rexeram
rexeramus
rexeras
rexeratis
rexerat
Future Perfect.
/ shall have ruled.
rexerant
rexero
rexerimus
rexeris
rexeritis
rexerit
rexerint
Third Conjugation.
67
SINGULAR.
regam
regas
regat
resferem
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I rule, let him rule.
PLURAL.
regamus
regatis
regant
Imperfect.
should ride, he would rule.
regeremus
regeres
regeretis
regeret
Perfect.
/ may have rided.
regerent
rexerim
rexerimus
rexeris
rexeritis
rexerit
Pluperfect.
rexerint
I should have ruled, he would ha
ve rtded.
rexissem
rexissemus
rexisses
rexissetis
rexisset
rexissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. rege, ride thou ; regite, rule ye.
Fut. regito, thou shall rtde, regitote, ye shad ride,
regunto, they shall ride.
regito, he shall rule ;
INFINITIVE.
Pres. regere, to rule.
Per/, rexisse, to have ruled.
Fut. recturus esse, to be about
to rule.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. regens, ruling.
(Gen. regentis.)
Fut. recturus, about to rule
GERUND.
Gen. regendi, of ruling,
Dat. regendo, for ruling,
Ace. regendum, riding,
Abl. regendo. by ruling.
SUPINE.
Ace. rectum, to rule,
Abl. rectu, to rule, be ruled.
68
Inflectiojts.
THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.
106. Passive Voice,— Regor, I am ruled.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
regor
regi
rectus sum
SINGULAR.
regor
resreris
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am ruled.
Imperfect.
I was r tiled.
regebar
regebaris, or -re
regebatur
Future.
/ shall be ruled.
regar
regeris, or -re
regetur
Perfect.
/ have been ruled, or / was
rectus sum
rectus es
rectus est
Pluperfect.
/ had beeu rided.
rectus eram
rectus eras
rectus erat
rectus ero
rectus eris
rectus erit
PLURAL.
regimur
regimini
reguntur
regebamur
regebamini
regebantur
regemiur
regemini
regentur
ricled.
recti sumus
recti estis
recti sunt
recti eramus
recti eratis
recti erant
Future Perfect.
/ shall ha%)e been rtded.
recti erim.u3
recti eritis
recti erunt
Third Conjugation.
69
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I be ruled, let him be ruled.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regar regamur
regaris, or -re regamini
regatur regantur
Imperfect.
I should be ruled, he would be ruled.
regerer
regereris, or -re
regeretur
Perfect.
/ may have been ruled.
rectus Sim
rectus SIS
rectus sit
regeremur
regeremini
regerentur
recti simus
recti sitis
recti sint
Pluperfect.
/ should have been rided, he would have been ruled.
rectus essem recti essemus
rectus esses recti essetis
rectus esset recti essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. regere, be thou rtded; regimini. be ye ruled.
Fut. regitor, thou shall be ruled,
regitor, he shall be ruled', reguntor, they shall be ruled.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. regi, to be ruled.
Per/, rectus esse, to have been
rided.
Fut. rectum irT, to be about to
be ruled.
PARTICIPLE.
Perfect. rectus, rjded.
Gerundive, regendus, to be ruled,
deserving to be
ruled.
«Q Inflections.
FOURTH (OR i-) CONJUGATION.
107. Active Voice. — Audio, / hear.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Pass. Partic.
audio audire audivi auditus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense,
SINGULAR.
/ hear.
PLURAL.
audio
audimus
audis
auditis
audit
audiunt
Imperfect.
/ was hearing.) or / heard.
audiebam audiebamus
audiebas audiebatis
audiebat audiebant
Future.
/ shall hear.
audiam
audiemus
audies
audietis
audiet
Perfect.
audient
I have heard., or I heard.
audivi
audivimus
audivisti
audTviatis
audivit
Pluperfect.
/ had heard.
audiverunt, or -ere
audiveram
audiveramus
audi V eras
audlveratis
audiverat
Future Perfect.
/ shall have heard
audiverant
audivero
audiverimus
audiveris
audlveritis
audiverit
audlverint
Fourth Conjugation.
n
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
SINGULAR.
May I hear, let him hear.
PLURAL,
audiam
audiamus
audias
audiatis
audiat
audiant
Imperfect.
/ should hear, he would hear.
audirem audiremus
audires
audiretis
audlret
audirent
Perfect.
audlverim
/ may have heard.
audiverimus
audiveris
audlveritis
audiverit
audiverint
Pluperfect.
/ should have heard, he would have heard.
audlvissem audivissemus
audivisses audivissetis
audivisset audlvissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. audi, hear thoti ; audite, hear ye.
Fut. audits, thou shall hear, auditote, ye shall hear,
audits, he shall hear;
audiuntS, they shall hear.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audire, to hear.
Per/, audlvisse, to have heard.
Fut.
auditurus esse, to be about
to hear.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audiens, hearing.
(Gen. audientis.)
Fut. auditurus, about to hear*
GERUND.
Gen BMdiendi, of hearing,
Dai. audiendS, for hearing.
Ace. audiendum, hearing.,
Abl. audiendo, by hearing.
SUPINE.
Ace. audltum, to hear,
Abl. audita, to hear, be heard.
72
Inflections.
FOURTH (OR I-) CONJUGATION.
108. Passive Voice. — Audior, / am heard.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
'res. Ind,
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
audior
audiri
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
auditus sum
SINGULAR.
/ am heard.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
audior
/ am heard.
plural.
audimur
audiris
auditur
Imperfect.
audimini
audiuntur
audiebar
audiebSris,
audiebatur
/ was heard,
or -re
Future.
audiebamur
audiebamini
audiebantur
audiar
audieris, or
audietur
/ shall be heard.
-re
audiemur
audiemini
audientur
Perfect,
/ have been heard, or / was heard.
auditus sum auditi sumus
auditus es audlti estis
auditus est auditi sunt
Pluperfect,
/ had been heard.
auditus eram
auditus eras
auditus erat
auditi eramus
auditi eratis
auditi erant
Future Perfect.
/ shall have been heard.
auditus ero
auditus eris
auditus erit
auditi erimus
auditi eritis
auditi erunt
Fourth Conjugation. 73
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I be heard, let hhn be heard.
SINGULAR, PLURAL.
audiar audiamur
audiaris, or -re audiamini
audiatur audiantur
Imperfect.
/ should be heard, he would be heard.
audirer audiremur
audireris, or -re audiremini
audiretur audirentur
Perfect.
/ may have been heard.
auditus Sim audit! simus
auditus SIS auditi sitis
auditus sit auditi sint
Pluperfect.
/ should have been heard, he would have been heard.
auditus essem auditi essemus
auditus esses auditi essetis
auditus esset auditi essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. audire, be thou heard', audimini, be ye heard.
Fut. auditor, thou shall be heard,
auditor, he shall be heard; audiuntor, they shall be heard.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audiri, to be heard.
Per/, auditus esse, to have been Perfect. auditus, heard.
heard. Gertindive. audiendus, to be
Fut. audltum iri, to be about to heard, deserving
be heard. to be heard.
74 Inflections.
VERBS IN -lO OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
109. I. Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation take the
endings of the Fourth Conjugation, wherever the latter
endings have two successive vowels. This occurs only in
the Present System.
2. Here belong —
a) capio, to take', cupio, to desire', facio, to 7nake ; fodio, to
dig; fugio, to flee ; jacio, to throw] pario, to bear ; quatio,
to shake ; rapio, to seize ; sapio, to taste.
b) Compounds of lacio and specie (both ante-classical); as,
allicio, entice', conspicio, behold.
c) The deponents gradior, to go ; morior, to die ; patior, to
suffer.
110. Active Voice. — C2i^\b, I take.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Pass. Partic.
capio, capere, cepT, captus.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. Present Tense. plural.
capio, capis, capit ; capimus, capitis, capiunt.
Imperfect.
capiebam, -iebas, -iebat ; capiebamus, -iebatis, -iebant.
Future.
capiam, -ies, -iet ; capiemus, -ietis, -lent.
Perfect.
cepi, -istl, -it ; cepimus, -istis, -erunt, or ere.
Pluperfect.
ceperam, -eras, -erat ; ceperamus, -eratis, -erant.
Future Perfect.
cepero, -eris, -erit ; ceperimus. -eritis, -erint.
Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation. 75
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. Present. plural.
capiam, -ias, -iat ; capiamus, -iatis, -iant.
Imperfect.
caperem, -eres, -eret ; caperemus, -eretis, -erent.
Perfect.
ceperim, -eris, -erit; ceperimus, -eritis, -erint.
Pluperfect.
cepissem, -isses, -isset ; cepissemus, -issetis, -issent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. cape ; capite.
Fut. capito, capitote,
capito ; capiunto.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. capere. Pres. capiens.
Perf. cepisse.
Fut. capturus esse. Fut. capturus.
GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. capiendT,
Dat. capiendo,
Ace. capiendum, Ace. captum,
Abl. capiendo. Abl. captu.
111. Passive Voice. — Cdi'^ior, I a7n taken.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind.
capior, capi, captus sum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. Present Tense. plural.
capior, caperis,, capitur ; capimur, capiminT, capiuntur.
Imperfect.
capiebar, -iebaris, -iebatur ; capiebamur, -iebaminl, iebantur.
Future.
capiar, -ieris, -ietur; capiemur, -ieminl, -ientur.
'j6 Inflections.
SINGULAR. Perfect. plural.
captus sum, es, est ; captl sumus, estis, sunt.
Pluperfect.
captus eram, eras, erat ; capti eramus, eratis, erant.
Future Perfect.
captus er5, eris, erit ; captl erimus, eritis, erunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
capiar, -iaris, -iatur ; capiamur, -iamim, -iantur.
Imperfect.
caperer, -ereris, -eretur ; caperemur, -eremini, -erentur.
Perfect.
captus sim, sTs, sit ; captl sTmus, sTtis, sint.
Pluperfect.
captus essem, esses, esset ; captl essemus, essetis, essent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. capere ; capiminl.
Fut. capitor,
capitor ; capiuntor,
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. capT.
Perf. captus esse. Perfect. captus.
Fut. cap turn iri. Gerundive, capiendus.
DEPONENT VERBS.
112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive forms
with Active meaning. But —
a. They have the following Active forms : Future Infinitive,
Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.
b. They have the following Passive meanings : always in the
Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle ;
as,—
SQq\xeitidi.Vi^., to be followed ; ade-ptuB, ottawed.
Deponent Verbs.
77
113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are —
I. Conj. miror, mirari, miratus sum, admire.
II. Conj. vereor, vereri, veritus ^\xva., fear.
III. Conj. sequor, sequi, secutus smvo., follow.
IV. Conj. largior, largiri, largltus sum, give.
III. (in-ior) patior, pati, passus sum, suffer.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
III (in-ior).
Pres.
miror
vereor
sequor
largior
patior
miraris
vereris
sequeris
larglris
pateris
miratur
veretur
sequitur
largitur
patitur
miramur
veremur
sequimur
larglmur
patimur
miramini
veremini
sequimini
largimini
patimini
mirantur
verentur
sequuntur
largiuntur
patiuntur
Imp/.
mlrabar
verebar
sequebar
largiebar
patiebar
Put.
mirabor
verebor
sequar
largiar
patiar
Per/.
miratus sum
veritus sum
seciltus sum
largltus sum
passus sum
Plup.
miratus eram
veritus eram
seciitus eram
largltus eram
passus eram
P.P.
miratus ero
veritus ero
secutus ero
largltus ero
passus ero
Pres. mirer
Imp/, mirarer
Per/ miratus sim
Plup. miratus essem
SUBJUNCTIVE.
verear sequar largiar patiar
vererer sequerer larglrer paterer
veritus sim seciltus sim largltus sim passus sim
veritus essem seciltus essem largltus essem passus essem
Pres. mirare
Put. mirator
verere
veretor
IMPERATIVE.
sequere
sequitor
largire
largltor
patera
patitor
INFINITIVE.
Pres. mirari vereri sequI larglrl patI
Per/ miratus esse veritus esse seciltus esse largltus esse passus esse
Put. miratilrus esse veritHrus esse secHtiirus esse larglturus esse passiirus esse
Pres. mirans
Put. miratilrus
Per/ miratus
Ger. mirandus
verens
veritilrus
veritus
verendus
PARTICIPLES.
sequens
seciitilrus
seciltus
sequendus
largiens
largltiirus
largltus
largiendus
patiens
passurus
passus
patiendus
GERUND.
mirandl, verendl sequendi largiendi patiendl
mirando, etc. verendo, etc. sequendo, etc. largiendo, etc. patiendo, etc.
miratum, -tu
SUPINE.
veritum, -tii secutum, -tu largltum, -tu passum, -su
78 Inflections.
SEMI-DEPONENTS.
114. I. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Pres-
ent System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in
the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong —
audeo, audere, ausus sum, to dare.
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum, to rejoice.
soleo, solere, solitus sum, to be wont.
fido, fidere, fisus sum, to trust.
2. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with
Active meaning : —
adolesco, grow 7ip ; adultus, having grown up.
cenare, dine ; cenatus, having dined.
placere, please-, placitus, having pleased, agreeable.
prandere, lunch ; pransus, having lunched.
potare, drink; potus, having drunk.
jurare, swear; juratus, having sworn.
a. Juratus is used in a passive sense also.
3. Reverter and devertor both regularly form their Perfect in
the Active Voice ; viz. —
reverter, revert! (Inf ), revert! (Perf.), to return.
devertor, devert! (Inf.), deverti (Perf.), to turn aside.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
115. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, — the
Active and the Passive. The Active is formed by com-
bining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum,
the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same
auxiliary.
Active Periphrastic Conjugation.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, / am about to love.
Imp. amaturus eram, I was about to love.
Fut. amaturus ero, I shall be about to love.
Perf. amaturus fui, / have been (was) about to lovel
Plup. amat€Lrus fueram, / had been about to love.
Fut. P. amaturus fuero, / shall have been about to love.
Peculiarities of Conjugation.
79
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. amaturus sim, / may be about to love.
Imp. amaturus essem, / tnight be about to love.
Per/. amatarus fuerim, / 7nay have been about to love.
Plup. amaturus fuissem, / might have been about to love.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amaturus esse, to be about to love.
Per/. amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love.
Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.
INDICATIVE.
Pres. amandus (-a, -um) sum, I am to be loved, must be loved,
hup. amandus eram, / was to be loved.
Put. amandus ero, / shall deserve to be loved.
Per/. amandus f ui, / was to be loved.
Plup. amandus fueram, / had deserved to be loved.
Put. P. amandus f uero, / shall have deserved to be loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. amandus sim, / may deserve to be loved.
Imp. amandus essem, / might deserve to be loved.
Per/ amandus fuerim, I may have deserved to be loved.
Plup. amandus fuissem, / might have deserved to be loved.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amandus esse, to deserve to be loved.
Per/ amandus fuisse, to have deserved to be loved.
PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.
116. I. Perfects in -avi, -evi and -ivi, with the forms derived
from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or
s. So also novi (from nosco) and the compounds of movT (from
moveo) . Thus : —
amavistl
amasti
delevisti
delesti
amavisse
amasse
delevisse
delesse
amaverunt
amarunt
deleverunt
delerunt
amaverim
amarim
deleverim
delerim
amaveram
amaram
deleveram
delerain
amavero
amaro
deleverd
delero
novisti
nosti
noverim
norim
novisse
nosse
noveram
noram
audivisti
audlsti
audivisse
audlsse
8o Inflections.
2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conju-
gations, the endings -undus, -undi, often occur instead of -endus and
-endi, as faciundus, faciundi,
3. Dico, duco, facio, form the Imperatives, die, due, fae. But
compounds of faeio form the Imperative in -fice, as eonfice. Com-
pounds of dieo, dueo accent the ultima; as, edue, edie.
4. Archaic and Poetic forms : —
a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as,
amarier, monerier, dicier, for amari, moneri, diei.
b. The ending -ibam for -iebam in Imperfects of the Fourth
Conjugation, and -ibo for -iam in Futures ; as, scibam,
seibo, for sciebam, sciam.
c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dixisti, sorlp-
sistis, surrexisse, we sometimes find dixti, scripstis,
surrexe.
d. The endings -im, -is, etc. (for -am, -as, etc.^ occur in a few
Subjunctive forms ; as, edim (eat), duint, perduint.
5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxil-
iary esse is often omitted ; as, acturum for aeturum esse ; ejectus
for ejectus esse.
FORMATION OF THE VERB-STEMS.
Formation of the Present Stem.
117. Many verbs employ the Verb Stem for the Present
Stem ; ^ as, dlcere, ducere, amare, monere, audire. Others
form the Present Stem variously, as follows : —
1 . By appending the vowels a, e, 1 ; as, —
juvare, Present Stem juva- (Verb Stem juv-).
augere, " " auge- ( " " aug-).
vincire, " " vinci- ( " " vine-).
2. By adding i, as capio. Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-).
3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final con-
sonant of the Verb Stem ; as, fundo (Stem fud-), rumpo (Stem rup-).
4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem ; as, —
cern-6 pell-6 (for pel-no).
1 Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (§ or
6) ; as, dic-e-, dic-6- ; ama-e-, ama-6-. But the multitude of phonetic changes
involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the Appendix.
Formation of the Verb- Stems. 8 1
5. By appending t to the Verb Stem ; as, —
flect-6.
6. By appending sc to the Verb Stem ; as, —
cresc-6 scisc-6.
7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant 01
the Verb Stem with i ; as, —
gi-gn-6 (root gen-) . si-st-6 (root sta-) .
Formation of the Perfect Stem.
118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem —
1. By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems) ; as, —
amav-T, delev-i, audiv-i.
2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems) ; as, —
strepu-i, genu-i, alu-i.
3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems) ; as, —
carp-6. Perfect carps-i.
scrib-6, " scrTps-i (for scrib-si) .
rid-eo, " ris-i (for rid-sT) .
sent-io, " sens-i (for sent-si) .
dic-6, " dix-i {i.e. dic-si).
a. Note that before the ending -si a Dental Mute (t, d) is
lost ; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x ;
while the Labial b is changed to p.
4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three types :
a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial con-
sonant with the following vowel or e ; as, —
curro. Perfect cu-ourri.
posco, " po-posci.
pello, " pe-puli.
Note i. — Compounds, with the exception of do, sto, disco, posco, omit
the reduplication. Thus : com-puli, but re-poposci.
Note 2. — Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the redu-
plication, but drop s from the stem ; as, spondeo, spo-pondi ; sto, steti.
b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened ; as, lego,
legi ; ago, egi. Note that a by this process becomes e.
c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged ; as, verto,
verti ; minuo, minul.
G
82 Inflections.
Formation of Participial Stem.
119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the
Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed: —
1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to
the Verb Stem) ; as, —
ama-re, Participle ama-tus.
dele-re, " dele-tus.
audi-re, " audi-tus.
leg-ere, " lec-tus.
scrib-ere, " scrip-tus.
senti-re, " sen-sus (for sent-tus) .
caed-ere, " cae-sus (for caed-tus) .
a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see ^ 8, 5) ; b becomes \, ; while
dt or tt became SS, which was then often simphfied to S y\ 8, 2).
2. After the analogy of Participles like sensus and caesus, where
-sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb
Stems ; as, —
lab-i, Participle lap-sus.
flg-ere, " fi-xus.
a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -SUS to
the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see \ 118, 3, a).
3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -itus ; as, —
doma-re, dom-itus.
mone-re, mon-itus.
4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with
the Perfect Passive Participle ; as, ama-tus, amaturus ; monitus,
moniturus. But —
juva-re, Perf. Partic. jutus, has Fut. Act. Partic. juvaturus.^
lava-re.
a
u
lautus,
"
u
lavaturus.
par-ere.
u
a
partus,
u
a
pariturus.
ru-ere.
"
a
-rutus.
a
u
ruiturus.
seca-re,
u
a
sectus.
a
a
secaturus.
fru-i.
u
a
-friictus,
a
u
f ruiturus.
mor-i.
u
a
mortuus,
a
a
moriturus.
ori-ri.
u
u
ortus.
a
a
oritiirus.
1 But the compounds of juvo sometimes have -juturus ; as, adjuturus.
List of the Most Important Verbs.
83
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS WITH
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
First (A-) Conjugation.
120. I. Perfect in -Vi.
amo amare amavT amatus love
All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.
poto
II.
crepo
cub5
domo
frico
mico
drmic5
ex-plico
im-plico
seco
sono
tono
veto
potare
Perfect in ■
crepare
cubare
domare
fricare
micare
dimicare
explicare
implicare
secare
sonare
tonare
vetare
potavi
ui.
crepuT
cubui
domuT
fricui
micuT
dimicavT
potus (§ 114, 2) drink
crepiturus rattle
cubiturus lie down
domiturus tame
frictus and fricatus rub
glitter
dimicatum (est)i fight
explicavT (-uT) explicatus (-itus) unfold
implicavl (-ul) implicatus (-itus) entwine
secui sectus cut
sonui sonaturus sound
tonui thunder
vetui vetitus forbid
.]UV0
lavo
III. Perfect in -I with Lengthening of the Stem Vowel.
: juvi jiitus help
juvdic
lavare
lavi
lautus
wash
IV. Deponents.
These are all regular, and follow mtror, 7mrdrt, inirdtus sum.
Second (-E'-) Conjugation.
121. I. Perfect in -VI.
deleo delere delevi
fleo flere flevi
com-pleo 2 complere complevi
aboleo abolere abolevi
cieo 2 ciere civi
^ Used only impersonally. 2 So impleo, expleo.
3 Compounds follow the P'ourth Conjugation : accio, acc'ire, etc.
deletus
destroy
fletus
weep, la?nent
completus
fill up
abolitus
destroy
citus
set in motion
84
Inflections,
II. Perfect in -UI.
a. Type
-eo, -ere, -ul,
-itus.
arceo
arcere
arcuT
keep off
coerceo
coercere
coercuT
coercitus
hold in check
exerceo
exercere
exercui
exercitus
practise
caleo
calere
calui
calitiirus
be warm
careo
care re
caruT
cariturus
be without
doleo
dolere
doluT
doliturus
grieve
habeo
habere
habui
habitus
have
debeo
debere
debul
debitus
owe
praebeo
praebere
praebui
praebitus
offer
jaceo
jacere
jacuT
jaciturus
lie
mereo
me re re
memi
meritus
earn, deserve
moneo
monere
monui
monitus
advise
noceo
nocere
nocuT
nocitum (est)
injure
pareo
parere
paruT
paritiirus
obey
placeo
placere
placuT
placiturus
please
taceo
tacere
tacui
taciturus
be site fit
terreo
terrere
termi
territus
frighten
valeo
valere
valuT
valiturus
be strong
Note i.-
— The following lack the Participial Stem : -
-
egeo
egere
eguT
want
emineo
eminere
eminui
stand forth
flored
florere
floruT
bloom
horreo
horrere
horruT
bristle
lateo
latere
latui
lurk
niteo
nitere
nitui
gleam
oleo
oiere
olui
smell
palleo
pallere
pallui
be pale
pateo
patere
patuT
lie open
rube5
rubere
rubui
be red
sileo
silere
silui
be silent
splendeo
splendere
splendui
gleam
studeo
studere
studui
study
stupeo
stupere
stupui
be afnazed!
timeo
timere
timui
fear
torpeo
torpere
torpui
be dull
vigeo
vigere
viguT
floiirish
vireo
virere
virui
and others.
be green-
List of the Most Important Verbs.
85
Note 2. ■
— The following
are used only
in the Present
System : —
aveo
avere
wish
frlgeo
frige re
be cold
immineo
imminere
overhang
maereo
maerere
nioiir^i
polleo
pollere
and others.
be strottg
b. Type
-eo, -ere, -ui, -tus (-sus).
cense5
censere
censui
census
estimate
doceo
docere
docui
doctus
teach
misceo
miscere
miscul
mixtus
mix
teneo
tenere
tenui
hold
So contineo and stistineo ;
but —
retineo
retinere
retinui
retentus
retain
obtineo
obtinere
obtinui
obtentus
maintain
torreo
torrere
torrui
tostus
bake
III. Perfect in -SI.
augeo
augere
auxi
auctus
increase
torqueo
torquere
torsi
tortus
twist
indulged
indulgere
indulsT
indulge
luceo
lucere
luxi
be light
lugeo
lugere
liixT
mourn
jubeo
jubere
jus si
jussus
order
per-mulce5
permulcere
permulsT
permulsus
soothe
rideo
ride re
risT
risum (est)
laugh
suadeo
suadere
suasi
suasum (est)
advise
abs-tergeo
abstergere
abstersT
abstersus
wipe off
ardeo
ardere
arsi
arsiirus
burn
haereo
haerere
haesi
haesijrus
stick
maneo
manere
mansi
mansurus
stay
algeo
algere
alsi
be cold
fulgeo
fulgere
fulsT
glea?n
urgeo
urge re
ursi
press
IV. Perfect in -I with Reduplication.
mordeo
mordere
momordi
morsus
bite
spondeo
spondere
spopondi
spdnsus
pro?nise
tondeo
tondere
totondi
tonsus
shear
pendeo
pendere
pependi
hang
S6
Inflections.
V.
Perfect in -I
WITH Leng:
rHENiNG OF Stem
Vowel.
caveo
faveo
foveo
cavere
favere
fovere
cavi
favT
fovi
cauturus
fauturus
fotus
take care
favor
cherish
moved
movere
movi
motus
move
paveo
seded
video
pavere
sedere
videre
pavi
sedi
vidT
sessurus
visus
fear
sit
see
voveo
vovere
VOVl
votus
vow
VI. Perfect in -I without either Reduplication or Length-
ening OF Stem Vowel.
ferveo fervere fervl (ferbul) boil
prandeo prandere prandl pransus (§ 1 14, 2) hmch
strideo stride re stridi creak
VII. Deponents.
liceor
licerl
polliceor
polliceri
mereor
merer!
misereor
misereri
vereor
vereri
fateor
faterl
confiteor
confiteri
reor
reri
medeor
mederi
tueor
tueri
licitus sum
pollicitus sum
meritus sum
miseritus sum
veritus sum
fassus sum
confessus sum
ratus sum
bid
promise
earn
pity
fear
confess
confess
think
heal
protect
Third (Consonant) Conjugation.
122. I. Verbs with Present Stem ending in a Consonant
I . Perfect in -si.
a. Type -6, -ere, -si, -tus.
carpo
carpere
carpsi
carptus
pluck
sculpo
sculpere
sculpsi
sculptus
chisel
repo
repere
repsT
creep
serpo
serpere
serpsi
crawl
scribo
scrlbere
scrlpsl
scrTptus
write
nubo
nubere
nupsi
nupta (woman only)
marry
rego
regere
rexi
rectus
govern
List of the Most Important Verbs.
87
tego
tegere
texi
tectus
cover
af-fllgo
afifligere
afflixi
afflictus
shatter
dico
dicere
dlxl
dictus
say
duco
ducere
duxi
ductus
lead
coquo
coquere
coxT
coctus
cook
traho
trahere
traxl
tractus
draw
veho
vehere
vexl
vectus
carry
cingo
cingere
cTnxi
cinctus
gird
tingo
tingere
tinxl
tinctus
dip
jungo
jungere
junxi
junctus
join
fingo
fingere
finxT
t'lCtUS
7noidd
pingo
pingere
plnxT
pictus
paint
stringd
stringere
strinxi
strictus
bind
-stinguo 1
-stinguere
-stlnxi
-stinctus
blot out
unguo
unguere
unxi
unctus
anoint
VIVO
vTvere
vTxi
vTctum (est)
live
gero
gerere
gessi
gestus
carry
uro
urere
USSl
ustus
burn
temno
temnere
con-tempsi
con-temptus
despise
b. Type
-6, -ere, -si,
-sus.
ilgo
figere
fixi
fixus
fasten
merg5
mergere
mersi
mersus
sink
spargo
spargere
sparsi
sparsus
scatter
flecto
flectere
flexi
flexus
bend
necto
nectere
nexuT (nexi)
nexus
twine
mittd
mittere
misi
missus
send
rado
radere
rasT
rasus
shave
rod5
rodere
rosT
rosus
gnaw
vado
vadere
-vasi 2
-vasum(est)2
march, walk
liido
ludere
lusi
lusum (est)
play
trudo
trudere
trusi
trusus
push
laedo
laedere
laesT
laesus
injure, hurt
claudo
claudere
clausi
clausus
close
plaudo
plaudere
plausT
plausum (est)
clap
explode
explodere
explosi
explosus
hoot off
cedo
cedere
cessT
cessum (est)
withdraw
divido
dividere
divlsl
dIvTsus
divide
premo
premere
pressl
pressus
press
1 Fully conjugated only in the compounds : exstinguo, restinguo, distinguo.
2 Only in the compounds : evadd, invddd, pervddb.
88
Inflections.
ab-do
abdere
abdidi
abditus
conceal
red-do
red-dere
reddidi
redditus
return
So addo,
condo, dedo, pe7^dd, prodo,
trado, etc.
c5n-sisto
consistere
constitT
take one^s stand
resist5
resistere
restiti
resist
circumsisto
circumsistere
circumsteti
surround
cado
cadere
cecidi
casurus
fall
caedo
caedere
cecTdi
caesus
kill
pend5
pendere
pependl
pensus
weighs pay
tends
tendere
tetendl
tentus
stretch
tundo
tundere
tutudi
tusus, tunsus
beat
fall5
fallere
fefellT
(falsus, as Adj.) deceive
pello
pellere
pepulT
pulsus
drive out
curro
currere
cucurri
cursum (est)
run
parco
parcere
peperci
parsurus
spare
cano
canere
cecini
Si7lg
tango
tangere
tetigi
tactus
touch
pungo
pungere
pupugl
punctus
prick
Note. —
In the following verbs the perfects were
originally redupli-
cated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable : —
per-cello
percellere
perculi
perculsus
strike down
findo
lindere
fidi
fissus
split
scindo
scindere
scidT
scissus
tear apart
tollo
tollere
sus-tuli
sublatus
re7)iove
3. Perfect in -1 with Lengthening of Stem-Vowel.
ago
agere
eg!
actus
drive, do
perago
peragere
peregi
peractus
fi7tish
subigo
subigere
subegi
subactus
subdue
cogo
cogere
coegi
coactus
force, gather
frango
frangere
fregi
fractus
break
perfringo
perfringere
perfregT
perfractus
break down
lego
legere
leg!
lectus
gather, read
perlego
perlegere
perlegT
perlectus
read through
colligo
colligere
collegT
collectus
collect
deligo
deligere
delegi
delectus
choose
diligo
diligere
dilexi
dilectus
love
intellego
intellegere
intellexl
intellectus
miderstand
neglego
neglegere
neglexi
neglectus
neglect
List of the Most Important Verbs.
89
emo
emere
emi
emptus
buy
coemo
coemere
coemi
coemptus
buy up
redimo
redimere
redemi
redemptus
buy back
dirimo
dirimere
dire mi
diremptus
destroy
demo
demere
dempsi
demptus
take away
sumo
sumere
sumpsi
sumptus
take
promo
promere
prompsi
(promptus, as Adj.)
take out
vinco
vincere
VlCl
victus
conquer
re-linqu6
relinquere
reliqui
rellctus
leave
rump5
rumpere
rupi
ruptus
break
edo
edere
edi
esus
eat
fundo
fundere
fudi
fusus
pour
4. Perfect in -1 without either
Stem-Vowel.
Reduplication or Lengthening of
excudo
excudere
excudi
excusus
haimner
' take one''s
consido
c5nsrdere
c5nsedl
seat
possTdo
possTdere
possedi
possessus
{ take posses-
\ sion
accenda
accendere
accendl
accensus
kindle
a-scendo
ascendere
ascend!
ascensum (est)
climb
de-fendo
defendere
defend!
defensus
defend
pre-hendo
prehendere
prehendi
prehensus
seize
ico
icere
!c!
ictus
strike
veils
vellere
veil!
vulsus
pluck
verto
vertere
vert!
versus
turn
pando
pandere
pand!
passus
spread
solvo
solvere
solvi
solutus
loose
viso
visere
vis!
visus
visit
volvo
volvere
volv!
volutus
roll
verrd
verrere
verr!
versus
sweep
5. Perfect in -ui.
in-cumbo
incumbere
incubu!
incubiturus
lean on
gigno
gignere
genu!
genitus
bring forth
molo
molere
molu!
molitus
grind
vomo
vomere
vomu!
vomitus
vomit
frem5
fremere
fremu!
snort
gemo
gemere
gemu!
sigh
meto
metere
messu!
messus
reap
90
Injiections.
tremo
tremere
tremul
trefnble
strep5
strepere
strepui
rattle
alo
alere
aim
altus (alitus)
nourish
colo
colere
coluT
cultus
cultivate
incolo
incolere
incolui
inhabit
excolo
excolere
excolui
excultus
perfect
consul5
consulere
consului
consultus
constdt
consero
conserere
conserui
consertus
join
desero
deserere
deseruT
desertus
desert
dissero
disserere
disserui
discourse
tex5
texere
texul
textus
weave
6. Perfect in -vi.
sino
sinere
sivT
situs
allow
desino
desinere
desii
desitus
cease
pono
ponere
posui
positus
place
ob-lino
oblinere
oblevi
oblitus
smear
sero
serere
sevi
satus
sow
consero
conserere
consevi
consitus
plant
cernd
cernere
separate
discernd
discernere
discrevi
discretus
distinguish
decerno
decernere
decrevi
decretus
decide
sperno
spernere
sprevi
spretus
scorn
sterno
sternere
stravT
stratus
spread
pro-sterno prosternere
prostravi
prostratus
overthrow
peto
petere
petivl (petil)
petitus
seek
appeto
appetere
appetlvl
appetitus
long for
tero
terere
trivl
tritus
rub
quaero
quaerere
quaesivi
quaesTtus
seek
acquTro
acquTrere
acquTsivi
acquisltus
acquire
arcesso
arcessere
arcesslvi
arcessTtus
su7n7non
capesso
capessere
capessTvT
capessTtus
seize
lacesso
lacessere
lacessTvi
lacessTtus
provoke
7. Used
only in Present
System.
ango
angere
choke
lambo
lambere
lick
claudo
claudere
be lame
fur 6
furere
rave
vergo
vergere
bend
and a few others.
List of the Most hnportant Verbs.
91
II. Verbs
WITH Present Stem ending in -U.
induo
induere
indui
indutus
put on
imbuo
imbuere
imbul
imbutus
moisten
luo
lucre
luT
wash
poUuo
polluere
polluT
poUutus
defile
minuo
minuere
minul
minutus
lessen
statuo
statuere
statu!
statu tus
set up
constituo
constituere
constitui
constitutus
determine
suo
suere
SUl
sutus
sew
tribuo
tribuere
tribul
tributus
allot
mo
mere
mi
miturus
fall
diruo
dim ere
dirul
dirutus
destroy
obru5
obruere
obrui
obmtus
overwhelm
acu5
acuere
acuT
sharpen
arguo
arguere
arguT
accuse
congruo
congmere
congrui
agree
metuo
metuere
metui
fear
ab-nuo
abnuere
abnui
decline
re-spuo
respuere
respui
reject
struo
struere
struxT
structus
build
fluo
fluere
flux!
(fluxus, as Adj.) flow
III. Verbs with Present Stem ending in -I.
cupio
cupere
cupTvT
cupitus
wish
sapio
sapere
sapTvi
taste
rapio
rapere
rapui
raptus
snatch
dlripio
diripere
dlripuT
d!reptus
plunder
conspicio
conspicere
conspexT
conspectus
gaze at
aspicio
aspicere
aspexi
aspectus
behold
illicio
illicere
illexT
illectus
allure
pellicio
pellicere
pellexT
pellectus
allure
elicio
elicere
elicuT
elicitus
elicit
quatio
quatere
quassus
shake
concutio
concutere
concuss!
concussus
shake
pario
parere
peper!
partus
bring forth
capio
capere
cepi
captus
take
accipio
accipere
accep!
acceptus
accept
incipio
incipere
incep!
inceptus
begin
facio
facere
fee!
factus
make
afficio
afficere
aifec!
affectus
affect
Passive^
afficior, affic!,
affectus sum.
92
Inflections.
So other prepositional compK)unds, perficio, perficior ; interficio, interficior}
et-c. But —
assuefacio assuefacere assuefeci assuefactus accustom
Passive assuefio, assuefieri, assuefactus sum.
So aXso pate/acid, pate/io; calefacio , calefio ; and all non-prepositional compounds.
jacio jacere jecl jactus Jmrl
abicio abicere abjeci abjectus throw away
fodio fodere fodi fossus dig
fugio fugere fugl fugiturus flee
efFugio effugere effugi escape
IV. Verbs in -SCO.
I. Verbs in -sco from Simple Roots.
posco
poscere
poposci
de?nand
disco
discere
didici
learn
pasco
pascere
pavT
pastus
feed
pascor
pasci
pastus sum
graze
cresco
crescere
crevT
cretus
grow
consuesco
consuescere
consuevT
consuetus
accusto?7i one's self
quiesc5
quiescere
quievi
quietiirus
be still
adolesco
adolescere
adolevi
adultus
grow up
obsolesc5
obsolescere
obsolevi
grow old.
nosco
n5scere
n5vi
become acquainted
with
ignosco
ignoscere
ignovT
ignoturus
pardon
agnosco
agnoscere
agnovi
agnitus
recognize
cognosco
' cognoscere
cogndvT
cognitus
(get acquainted
1 with
2. Verbs in -sco formed from other Verbs.
These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see § 155. i).
When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from
which thev are derived.
floresco
florescere
fldruT
begin to bloom
(floreo)
scTsc5
sciscere
scTvi
enact
(scio)
aresc5
arescere
arui
become d?y
(areo)
calesco
calescere
caluT
become hot
(caleo)
consenesco
consenescere
consenui
grow old
(seneo)
extimesco
extimescere
extimuT
fear greatly
(timeo)
ingemisco
ingemlscere
ingemui
sigh
(gemo)
adhaeresco
adhaerescere
adhaesi
stick
(haereo)
List of the Most hnportant Vei^bs.
93
3. Verbs in -sco derived from Nouns, usually with Inchoative
meaning.
obduresco obdurescere obduruT grow hard (durus)
evanesco evanescere evanuT disappear (vanus)
percrebresco percrebrescere percrebruT grow fresh (creber)
maturesco maturescere maturui grow ripe (maturus)
obmutesco obmutescere obmutui grow dutnb (mutus)
V. Deponents.
fungor
fungi
functus sum
perfonti
queror
querl
questus sum
complain
loquor
loqul
locutus sum
speak
sequor
sequi
secutus sum
follow
fruor
frui
fruiturus
enjoy
perfruor
perfruT
perfructus sum
thoroughly enjoy
labor
lab!
lapsus sum
glide
amplector
amplecti
amplexus sum
einbrace
nitor
niti
nisus sum, nixus sum
strive
gradior
gradl
gressus sum
walk
patior
pat!
passus sum
su^er
perpetior
perpeti
perpessus sum
endure
utor
uti
usus sum
tise
morior
mori
mortuus sum
die
adipTscor
adipTsci
adeptus sum
acquire
comminTscor
comminTscT
commentus sum
invent
reminiscor
reminisci
remember
nancTscor
nancTscT
nanctus (nactus) sum
acquire
nascor
nascT
natus sum
be born
obllviscor
oblivisci
oblitus sum
forget
pacTscor
pacTscT
pactus sum
cove?iant
proficTscor
proficTsci
profectus sum
set out
ulcTscor
ulcTscI
ultus sum
avenge
Trascor
irasci
(Tratus, as Adj.)
be angry
vescor
vesci
eat
Fourth Conjugation.
123. I. Perfect ends in -VI.
audi5 audire audlvT auditus hear
So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation,
sepelio sepelire sepelTvi sepultus bury
94
Inflections.
II. Perfect ends in -UI.
aperio
aperlre
aperul
apertus
open
operio
operire
operui
opertus
cover
salio
salire
salul
leap
III.
Perfect ends in
-Si.
saepio
saepTre
saepsT
saeptus
hedge in
sancio
sancire
sanxT
sanctus
ratify
vincio
vincTre
vinxl
vinctus
bind
amicio
amicire
amictus
envelope
fulcio
fulcTre
fulsT
fultus
prop up
refercio
refer cire
refers!
refertus
fill
sarcio
sarcire
sarsi
sartus
patch
hauria
haurire
hausT
haustus
draw
sentio
sentire
sens!
sensus
feel
IV. Perfect in -I with Lengthening of Stem Vowel.
co7ne
arriv
fitid
find
learn
venio venire
veni ventum (es
advenio advenire
adveni adventum i
invenio invenire
invenl inventus
V. Perfect with Loss
OF Reduplication.
reperio reperlre
repperl repertus
comperio comperire
comperi compertus
VI. Used only in the Present.
ferio ferire
esurio esurlre
strike
be hungry
bestow
try
await
begin
arise
Orior also admits forms of the Third Conjugation ; as, oreris, oritur,
orimur ; orerer (Imp. Subj.); orere (Imper.).
metior metlri mensus sum measure
assentior assentlri assensus sum assent
largior
largTri
largltus sum
So many
others.
experior
experiri
expertus sum
opperior
opperlri
oppertus sum
ordior
ordiri
orsus sum
orior
orlrT
ortus sum
Irregular Verbs. 95
IRREGULAR VERBS.
124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most
important are sum, do, edo, fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo, fi6.
The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the
personal endings in many forms directly to the stem,
instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d
Sing, of fer-6) instead of fer-is. They are but the relics
of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.
,125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various
compounds are inflected in the same way. They are —
absum abesse afuT am absejit
Pres. Fartic. absens (absentis), absent.
adsum adesse adfui am present
desum deesse defuT a7?i lacking
insum inesse Tnfui a77i in
intersum interesse interfui am amofig
praesum praeesse praefuT am in charge of
Pres. Partic. praesens (praesentis) present.
obsum obesse > obfui hinder
prosum prodesse profui am. of advantage
subsum subesse subfui am at the basis of
supersum superesse superfui am left
Note. — Prosum is compounded of prod (earlier form of pro) and sum;
the d disappears before consonants, as prosumus, but prodestis.
126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of
pot- (for pote, able^ and sum ; potui is from an obsolete potere.
PRINCIPAL
PARTS.
possum,
posse,
potui, to be able.
INDICATIVE
MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
possum, potes, potest ;
possumus, potestis, possunt,
I?7lp.
poteram :
poteramus.
P^t.
potero ;
poterimus.
Perf
potuT ;
potuimus.
Plup.
potueram;
potueramus.
Put. P.
potuero ;
potuerimus.
q5 Inflections.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Pres. possim, possis, possit ; possTmus, possitis, possint.
Imp. possem; possemus.
Perf. potuerim; potuerimus.
Phtp. potuissem; potuissemus.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. posse.
Perf. potuisse.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. ^oi^ns {as an adjective)
127.
Do, I give.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
do, dare, dedi,
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
datus.
Pres.
do, das, dal
;; dam us, datis
Imp.
dabam, etc.
; dabam us.
Put.
dabo, etc. ;
dabimus.
Perf.
dedi ;
dedimus.
Plup.
dederam ;
dederamus.
Put. P. dedero;
dederimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
dem ;
demus.
Imp.
darem ;
daremus.
Perf
dederim ;
dederimus.
Plup.
dedissem ;
dedissemus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
da;
date.
Put.
dato;
datote.
dato;
danto.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
dare.
dans.
Perf.
dedisse.
Put.
daturus esse. daturus.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
dandl, etc.
datum, data.
Irregular Verbs. 97
1. The Passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus :
dari, datur, dabatur, daretur, etc.
2. The archaic and poetic forms duim, duint, interduo, perduint,
etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of simi-
lar meaning.
128. Edo, / eat. This verb, in addition to its regular inflection,
sometimes has dupHcate forms in certain tenses of the Present System.
edo,
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
edere, edi, i
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
edo
edimus
edis,
es editis, estis
edit,
est edunt
Pres.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp. ederem, essem ederemus, essemus
ederes, esses ederetis, essetis
ederet, esset ederent, essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. ede, es edite, este
Fut. edito, esto editote, estote
edito, est5 edunto
INFINITIVE.
Pres. edere, esse
Passive Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. 2,d Sing, editur, estur
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Lnp. 2,d Sing, ederetur, essetur
1. Observe the long vowel of the abbreviated forms, which alone
distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be.
2. Note comedo, comedere, comedi, coniesus or comestus,
consume.
H
98 Inflections.
129. Fero, I bear.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fero, ferre, tuli, latus.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
fero, fers, fert ;
ferimus, fertis, ferunt.*
Imp.
ferebam ;
ferebamus.
Fut.
feram ;
feremus.
Per/.
tulT;
tulimus.
Plup.
tuleram ;
tuleramus.
Fut. P. tulero;
tulerimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
feram ;
feramus.
Imp.
ferrem ;
ferre mus.
Perf.
tulerim ;
tulerimus.
Plup.
tulissem ;
tulissemus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
fer;
ferte.
Fut.
ferto ;
fertate.
ferto ;
ferunto.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
ferre.
Pres.
ferens.
Perf.
tulisse.
Fut.
latQrus esse.
Fut.
laturus.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
Gen.
ferendi.
Dat.
ferendo.
Ace.
ferendum.
Ace.
latum.
Abl.
ferendo.
Abl.
lata.
1 It will be observed that not all the forms of fer5 lack the connecting vowel.
Some of them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the
Third Conjugation.
Irregular Verbs,
99
Passive Voice.
feror,
ferri,
latus sum, to he home.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
feror, ferris, fertur ;
ferimur, ferimini, feruntur.
Itnp.
ferebar ;
ferebamur.
Fut.
ferar ;
feremur.
Perf.
latus sum ;
lati sumus.
Plup.
latus eram ;
lati eramus.
Fut. P
. latus ero ;
lati erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
ferar ;
feramur.
Imp.
ferrer ;
ferremur.
Perf.
latus sim ;
lati sTmus.
Plup.
latus essem ;
lati essemus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
ferre ;
ferimini.
Fut.
fertor ;
fertor ;
feruntor.
1
NFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
ferrl.
Perf.
latus esse.
Perf. latus.
Fut.
latum iri.
Ger. ferendus.
So also the Compounds —
affero
afferre
attuli
allatus
hring towara
aufero
auferre
abstuli
ablatus
take away
confero
c5nferre
contuli
collatus
cojnpare
difFero
differre
distulT
dllatus
put off
efFero
efFerre
extuli
elatus
carry off
Tnfero
inferre
intuli
illatus
bring against
offero
offerre
obtuli
oblatus
present
refero
referre
rettuli
relatus
hring back
Note.
— The forms sustuli and sublatus belong
to tollo.
[OO
Inflections.
130.
Volo, nolo, malo.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
volo
, velle,
volui.
to be
willing.
nolo
, nolle,
nolui,
to be
unwilling.
male
», malle,
malui.
to prefer.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.
vol5,
nolo.
malo.
vis,
non VIS,
mavis,
vult;
non vult ;
mavult ;
volumus,
nolumus,
malumus,
vultis,
non vultis,
mavultis.
volunt.
nolunt.
malunt.
Imp.
volebam.
n5lebam.
malebam
F2lt.
volam.
nolam.
malam.
Perf.
volui.
noluT.
maluT.
Plup.
volueram.
nolueram.
malueram.
Put, p.
. voluero.
noluero.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
maluerd.
Pres.
velim, -Is, -it, etc. nolim.
malim.
Imp.
vellem, -es, -et.
,etc. nollem.
mallem.
Perf.
voluerim.
noluerim.
maluerim.
Plup.
voluissem.
noluissem.
IMPERATIVE.
maluissem,
Pres. noli, nolTte.
Fut. nolito, n5lit6te,
nolito ; nolunto.
Pres. velle.
Perf. voluisse.
INFINITIVE.
nolle,
noluisse.
malje.
maluisse.
Pres. volens.
PARTICIPLE.
nolens.
Irregular Verbs. lOl
131. Pi6.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fio. fieri, f actus sum, to beco7ne, be made.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGUf^AR. PLURAL.
Pres. fio, fis, fit ; ' fimus, fitis, fiunt.
/////. f lebam ; fiebamus.
Flit. flam ; fiemus.
Perf. factussum; fact! sumus.
Plup. factuseram; fact! eramus.
Fut. P. factus ero ; fact! erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. flam ; fiamus.
hnp. fierem ; fieremus.
Perf. factus sim ; fact! simus,
Plup. factus essem ; fact! essemus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. /I ; fite.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. fieri.
Perf. factus esse. Perf. factus.
Flit. factum iri. Ger. faciendus.
Note. — A few isolated forms of compounds of fio occur; as>
defit, lacks ; infit, begins.
132. B6.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
eo, ire, ivi, itum (est), to go.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Pres. eo. Is, it; imus, Itis, eunt.
Imp. ibam ; ibamus.
Fut. ibo ; ibimus.
Perf. ivI (ii) ; ivimus (iimus),
Plup. Iveram (ieram) ; Tveramus (ieramus).
Fjit. P. ivero (iero) ; iverimus (ierimus) .
I02
Inflections.
SINGULAR.
Pres. earn ;
I)}ip. irem ;
Perf. Tverim (ierim) ;
Phip. ivissem (iissem, Tssem) ;
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PLURAL.
eamus.
iremus.
iverimus (ierimus).
ivissemus (iissemus, issemus),
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
I;
ite.
Flit.
Tt5;
Ttote,
Tto;
eunto.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE
Pres.
Ire.
Pres. iens.
Perf.
ivisse (isse)
{Gen. euntis.)
Put.
iturus esse.
Fut. iturus.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
eundl, etc.
itum, itu.
I. Transitive compounds of eo admit ihe full Passive inflection
as, adeor, adiris. aditur, etc.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are
the most important : —
133. Used mainly in the Perfect System.
Coepi, I have begim.
Perf. coepT.
Plup. coeperam.
Fut. P. coepero.
Perf. coeperim.
Plup. coepissem.
Memini, I remember.
OdI, riiate.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
meminl.
odT.
memineram.
oderam.
meminera.
odero.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
meminerim.
oderim.
meminissem.
adissem.
IMPERATIVE.
Sing, memento ; Plur. mementate.
Defective Verbs.
103
INFINITIVE.
Perf.
Put.
coepisse.
coepturus esse.
meminisse.
odisse.
osurus esse.
Perf.
Put.
coeptus, begun.
coepturus.
PARTICIPLE.
osus.
osurus.
1. When coepi governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the
form coeptus est ; as, amari coeptus est, he began to be loved.
2. Note that memini and odi, though Perfect in form, are Present
in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force
oi the Imperfect and Future; as, memineram, I rentembered; odero,
/ shall hate.
134. Inquam, / say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)c
135.
INDICATIVE
MOOD.
Pres.
Put.
SINGULAR.
inquam,
inquis,
inquit ;
PLURAL.
inquiunt.
inquies,
inquiet.
Perf. -^d Sing.
inquit.
A.]6, I say.
INDICATIVE
MOOD.
Pres.
SINGULAR.
ajo,
PLURAL.
ais,
Imp.
ait;
ajebam,
ajebas,
ajebat ;
Perf. id Sing. ait.
ajunt.
ajebamus,
ajebatis,
ajebant.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. -^^d Sing. ajat.
Note. — For aisne, do you mean? ain is common.
1 04 Inflections.
136. Fari, to speak.
This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present
System it has —
INDICATIVE 1
MOOD.
Pres.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
fatur.
Flit.
fabor,
fabitur.
Imp.
fare.
Inf.
far!.
Pres.
Par tic
. fantis, fantl, etc.
Gerund,
G.,
fandi; D
. and AbL, fando.
Gerundive
fandus.
Note, — Forms of fari are rare. More frequent are its compounds; as, —
af fatur, he addresses ; praef amur, we say in advance.
137. Other Defective Forms.
1. Queo, quire, quivi, to be able, and nequeo, nequire, nequivi,
to be unable, are inflected like eo, but occur chiefly in the Present
Tense, and there only in special forms.
2. Quaeso, /^;//;V(2/ ; quaesumus, w^ *?;//r^«/.
3. Cedo, cette ; give jne, tell me.
4. Salve, salvete, hail. Also Infinitive, salvere.
5. Have (ave), havete, hail. Also Infinitive, havere.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it
snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but
may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun ;
as, me pudet hoc fecisse, lit. it shames me to have done this ;
hoc decet, tJiis is fitting. Here belong —
I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as, —
fulget fulsit // lightejis
tonat tonuit // thunders
Impersonal Verbs.
105
grandinat
it hails
ningit
ninxit
it snows
pluit
pluit
it rains
II. Special
Verbs.
paenitet
paenitere
paenituit
it repents
piget
pigere
piguit
it grieves
pudet
pudere
puduit
it causes shame
taedet
taedere
taeduit
it disgusts
miseret
miserere
miseruit
it causes pity
libet
libere
libuit
it pleases
licet
licere
licuit
it is lawpd
oportet
oportere
oportuit
it is fitting
decet
decere
decuit
it is becoming
dedecet
dedecere
dedecuit
it is unbecoming
refert
referre
retulit
it concerns
III. Verbs
Impersonal only in Special Senses.
constat
constare
constitit
it is evident
praestat
praestare
praestitit
it is better
juvat
juvare
juvit
it delights
apparet
apparere
apparuit
it appears
placet
place re
placuit (pi
acitum est) it pleases
accedit
accedere
accessit
it is added
accidit
accidere
accidit
it happens
contingit
contingere
contigit
it happens
evenit
evenire
evenit
it turns out
interest
interesse
interfuit
it concerns
IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs ;
as,—
itur
lit. it
is gone
i.e.
sojne one goes
curritur
lit. it
is run
i.e.
some ojie runs
ventum est
lit. // has been cotne
i.e
some one has come
veniendum est
lit. // juiist be come
i.e.
somebody must come
pugnarl potest
lit. it
can be fought
i.e.
somebody can fight
Part III.
PARTICLES.
139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not
admit of inflection; viz. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc-
tions, Interjections.
ADVERBS.
140. Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have
become stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial
terminations have already been given above (§ j6). The
following Table of Correlatives is important : —
Relative and Interrogative.
ubi, where ; where ?
quo, whither ; whither ?
unde, whence ; whence ?
qua, where ; where f
cum, when.
quando, when ?
quotiens, as often as ;
how often f
quam, as much as ; how
much f
Demonstrative.
hic, here.
ibi, illic, istic, there.
hue, hither.
eo, istuc, illuc,
thither.
hinc, hence.
inde, istinc, illinc,
thence.
hac, by this way.
ea, istac, iliac, by
that way.
nunc, now.
turn, tunc, then.
totiens, so often.
tarn, so 7nuch.
1 06
Indefinite.
alicubi, usquam, us-
piam, somewhere.
aliquo, to some place.
alicunde, frojn some-
where.
aliqua, by sofne way.
aliquando, umquam,
S07netime.
aliquotiens, some
number of times.
Prepositions. 107
PREPOSITIONS.
141. The following Prepositions govern the Accusa-
tive : —
ad erga praeter
adversus (adversum) extra prope
ante Infra propter
apud inter secundum
circa intra subter
circiter juxta super
circum ob supra
cis penes trans
citra per ultra
contra pone versus
post
1. Usque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of even; as, —
usque ad urbem, even to the city.
2. Versus always follows its case; as, —
Romam versus^ toward Rome.
It may be combined with a preceding Preposition ; as, —
ad urbem versus, toward the city.
3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Super-
latives proximus, proxime, sometimes govern the Accusative ; as, —
Ubii proxime Rhenum incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine;
propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy.
142. The f ollov^ing Prepositions govern the Ablative : —
sine
tenus
a, ab, abs
de
absque
e,ex
coram
prae
cum
pro
1. A, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used ; before con-
sonants we find sometimes a, sometimes- ab (the latter not before the
labials b, p, f, v, m ; nor before c, g, q, or t) ; abs occurs only before
t6, and a is admissible even there.
2. E, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used ; before consO'
Hants, we find sometimes e, sometimes ex.
io8 Particles.
3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as pectoribus tenus, up to the
breast. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as labrorum tenus, as far
as the lips.
4. Cum is appended to the Pronoun of the First and Second
Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun ; usually also to the Relative
and Interrogative. Thus : —
mecum secum
tecum quocum or cum quo
noblscum quacum or cum qua
vobiscum quibuscum or cum quibus
On quTcum, see § 89, Footnote i .
143. Two Prepositions, in and sub, govern both the
Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they
denote motion ; with the Ablative, rest ; as, —
in urbem, into the city, in urbe, in the city.
I. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the
Ablative.
144. Relation of Adverbs and Prepositions.
1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still
retain their adverbial meaning ; as, post, afterwards; ante, previously;
contra, on the other hafid, etc.
2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally
employed as prepositions ; as, —
clam, pridie, with the Accusative.
procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.
3. Anastrophe. A dissyllabic preposition sometimes follows a
relative pronoun which it governs ; as, —
ii, qu5s inter erat, those ainong whom he was.
INTERJECTIONS.
145. Interjections are Particles expressing emotion.
They may express —
1. Surprise ; as, en, ecce, 6.
2. Joy ; as, io, euoe.
3. Sorrow and Pain ; as, heu, eheu, vae, pro.
4. Calling ; as, heus, eho.
Part IV.
WORD-FORMATION.
•—
I. DERIVATIVES.
146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter-
minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or
adjectives.
A. NOUNS.
1. Nouns derived from Verbs.
147. I. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fern, -trix, denotes the agent; as, —
victor, victrix, victor-, defensor, defender.
Note. — The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems ; as, —
gladiator, gladiator (from gladius).
2. The suffix -or (originally -6s) denotes an activity or a condi-
tion ; as, —
amor, iove; timor, fear ; dolor, ^ain.
3. The suffixes -tio (-sio), Gen. -onis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -us,
denote an action as in process', as, —
venatio, huntijig; obsessio, blockade', gemitus, sighing; cursus,
running.
Note. — Rarer endings with the same force are : —
a) -tura, -sura ; as, —
sepultura, burial; mensura, measuring,
b) -ium ; as,—
gaudium, rejoicinir
c) -16.6, as,—
cupido, desire.
109
1 10 Word- Formation.
4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum,
denote the means or place of an action ; as, —
lumen (luc-s-men), light; vocabulura, word',
ornamentum, ornament; documentum, proof;
sepulcrum, ^r^^/^. aratrum, plough;
vehiculum, carriage.
When the root ends in cptHecof the suffix disappears ; as,—
jaculum for jac-culum (from jaoio).
2. Nouns derived from Nouns.
148. I. Diminutives end in —
-ulus, (-ula, -ulum)
-olus, (-ol«^? -olum), after a vowel
-cuius, (-aula, -culum)
-ellus, (-ella, -ellum)
-illus, (-ilia? -ilium)
as,—
nidulus, little nest (nidus) ;
virgula, wand (virga) ;
oppidulum, little town (oppidum) ;
filiolus, little son (filius) ;
opusculum, little work (opus) ;
tab ella, tablet (tabula) ;
lapillus, pebble (lapis).
Note i. — It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender
of the words from which they are derived.
Note 2. — The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the diminu-
tive suffix, viz., -I0-. Thus : —
agellus, field, for ager-lus ;
lapillus, pebble, for lapid-lus.
2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates
either a collection ot such persons or their function; as, —
collegium, a corporation, body of colleagues (coUega) ;
sacerdotium, priestly function (sacerdos).
3. The suffixes -arium, -etum, -He designate a place where
objects are kept or are found in abunda?tce ; as, —
columbarium, dove-cote (columba) ;
olivetum, olive-orchard (oliva) ;
ovile, sheep-fold (ovis).
Nouns. — Adjectives. Ill
4. The suffix -atus denotes official position or honor ; as, —
consulatus, cons2ilship (consul).
5. The suffix -Ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates
a vocation or the place where it is carried 07i ; as, —
doctrina, teaching (doctor, teacher') ;
medicina, the art of healing (medicus, physician) ;
sutrina, cobbler'' s shop (sutor, cobbler).
6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of . . .
daughter of. . . . They have the following suffixes : —
a) Masculines : -ides, -ades, -Ides ; as, Priamides, son of
Priam ; Aeneades, son of Aeneas ; Pelides, son of Peleus.
b) Feminines : -eis, -is, -ias ; as. Nereis, daughter of Nereus ;
Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of
Thaumas.
3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.
149. The suffixes -tas (-itas), -tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used
for the formation of abstract nouns de7ioting qualities ; as, —
bonitas,^^^<^;/^-yi-; celeritas, swiftness; m.3.^nitvidiO, greatness ; auda-
cidL, boldness ; diralcitia., friendship.
B. ADJECTIVES.
1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.
150. I . The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force
of a present participle ; as, —
tremebundus, trembling; iracundus, wrathful.
2. The suffixes -ax and -ulus denote an inclination or tende7icy^
mostly a faulty one ; as, —
loquax, loquacious; credulus, credulous.
3. The suffix -idus denotes a state; as, —
calidus, //(?/ ; timidus, //wzV/; cwpidiMS, eager.
4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability^ usually in
a passive sense ; as, —
fragiliSj/V.^^//^ {i.e. capable of being broken);
docilis, docile.
112 Word-Formation.
2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.
a) From Co7n7no7t Nouns.
151. I. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of sub-
stances or materials ; as, —
aureus, o/ gold ; ferieus, of z'ro/i ; idi^inus, of beech.
2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -His, -alis, -aris, -arius, -nus, -anus,
-inus, -ivus, -ensis signify belonging to, connected with ; as, —
oratorius, oratorical; legionarius, legionary;
bellicus, pertaining to war ; paternus, paternal ;
civilis, civil; urbanus, of the city;
regalis, regal; marinus, marine;
oonsularis, consular ; aestivus, pertaining to sumuier;
circensis, belonging to the circus.
3. The suffixes -osus and -lentus denote /////;/ <?j-j-; as, —
perioulosus, full of danger, gloriosus, glorious ;
dangerous ; opulentus, wealthy.
4. The suffix -tus has the force oi provided with ; as, —
barbatus, bearded; stellatus, set with stars.
b) Fro7n Proper Na77ies.
152. I. Names of persons take the suffixes: -anus, -ianus,
-inus ; as, —
Catonianus, belongi7ig to Cato ; Plautinus, belo7igi7ig to Plantics.
2. Names oi 7iatio7is take the suffixes -icus, -ius ; as, —
Germanicus, Ger77ia7i ; Thracius, Thracian.
3. Names of places take the suffixes -anus, -Inus, -ensis, -aeus,
-ius ; as, —
Romanus, Rojnan ; Atheniensis, Athenian ;
Amerinus, of A77ieria; Smyrnaeus, of S77iyrna;
Corinthius, Cori7ithian.
Note. anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, desig-
nate something statio7ied i7i the country or C07i7iected with it, but not
indigenous ; as, —
bellum Africanum, a war {of Ro7na7is with Ro77ia7ts) 271 Africa.
bellum Hispaniense, a war carried 071 i7i Spain.
legiones Gallicanae, {Ro77ian) legions statio7ied in Gaul.
Adjectives. — Verbs.
113
3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.
153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur ; as, —
parvolus, little ;
misellus passer, ^oor little sparrow,
pauperculus, needy.
4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.
154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus, -tinus ; as,-
hodiernus, of to-day (hodie) ;
hesternus, of yesterday (heri) ;
intestinus, internal (intus) ;
diutinus, long-lasting (diu).
C. VERBS.
1. Verbs derived from Verbs.
155. I. Inceptives or Inchoatives. These end in -sco, and are
formed from Present Stems. They denote the beginning of an action;
as,—
labasco, begijt to totter (from labo) ;
horresco, grow rough (from horreo) ;
tremesco, begiti to tre77ible (from tremo) ;
obdormisco, fall asleep (from dormio).
2. Frequentatives or Intensives. These denote a repeated
or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and
end in -to or -so. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjuga-
tion end in -ito (not -ato, as we should expect). Examples of Fre-
quentatives are —
jacto, toss about., brandish (from jacio, hurl) ;
curso, run hither and thither (from curro, run) ;
volito, flit about (from vo\o,fly).
a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as, —
cantito, sing over and over (canto) ;
■ cursito, keep running about (curso) ;
ventito, keep coming.
b. agito, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem.
114 Word- Formation,
3. Desideratives. These denote a desire to do soinething. They
are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -urio ; as, —
esurio, desire to eat, am hungry (edo) ;
parturio, want to bring forth, ain in labor (pario).
2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives
(Denominatives).
156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive,
those of the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and
Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Exam-
ples are —
a)
From Nouns : —
frauds,
defraud
(fraus) ;
vestio,
clothe
(vestis) ;
floreo,
bloom
(flos).
i)
From Adjectives :
—
libero,
free
(liber) ;
saevio,
be fierce
(saevus).
L
'. ADVERBS.
157. I. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial
Stem by means of the suffix -im ; as, —
certatim, emulously (cert5) ;
cursim, iji haste (curro) ;
statim immediately (sto).
2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed : —
a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim ; as, —
gradatim, step by step ;
paulatim, gradually i
virltim, 7nan by man,
b) With the suffix -tus ; as, —
antiquitus, of old;
radicitus, fro7n the roots,
^) With the suffix -ter ; as, —
breviter, bri£fly.
Compounds. 115
n. COMPOUNDS.
158. I. Compounds are formed by the union of simple
words. The second member usually contains the essential
meaning of the compound; the first member expresses
some modification of this.
2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition.
Thus : —
a. In the second member of compounds. (See § 7. i.)
b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the com-
pound often appears as i where we should expect 6 or a ;
sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant
stems i is often inserted ; as, —
signif er, standard-bearer ;
tubicen, trjinipeter ;
magnanimus, high-?ninded ;
matricida, matr/cide.
15S. Examples of Compounds.
1. Nouns: —
a) Preposition + Noun ; as, —
de-decus, disgrace ;
pro-avus, great-grandfather.
b) Noun + Verb Stem ; as, —
agri-cola, j^rw^r ;
fratri-cida, fratricide.
2. Adjectives: —
«) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun) ; as,— =
per-magnu3, very great ;
sub-obscurus, rather obscure ;
a-mens, frantic.
b) Adjective + Noun ; as, —
magn-animus, great-hearted ;
miseri-cors, compassionate.
c) Noun + Verb Stem ; as, —
parti-ceps, sharing;
morti-fer, death-dealing.
1 1 6 Word-Formation.
3. Verbs: —
The second member is always a verb. The first may be —
a) A Noun; as, —
aedi-fico, build.
b) An Adjective ; as, —
ampli-fico, enlarge.
c) An Adverb ; as, —
male-dico, rail at.
d) Another Verb ; as, —
cale-facio, make warm.
e) A Preposition ; as, —
ab-jungo, detach ;
re-fero, bring back ;
dis-cerno, distinguish ;
ex-specto, await.
Note. — Here belong the so-called Inseparable Prepositions : —
ambi- (amb-), aronnd ;
dis- (dir-, dl-), apart, asunder '^
por- forward ;
red- (re-), back ;
sed- (se-), a^art/rom;
ve-, without.
4. Adverbs : —
These are of various types ; as, —
antea, before ;
ilico (in loco), on the spot \
imprimis, especially ;
obviam, in the way.
Part V,
SYNTAX.
♦—
160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences.
Chapter I. — Sentences.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.
161. Sentences may be classified as follows : —
1. Declarative, which state something ; as, —
puer scribit, the boy is writing.
2. Interrogative, which ask a question ; as, —
quid puer scribit, what is the boy writing?
3. Exclamatory, which are in the form of an exclamation; as, —
quot libros scribit, how many books he writes !
4. Imperative, which express a command or an admonition ; as,—
scribe, write !
FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sen-
tence-Questions.
I. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various
interrogative pronouns and adverbs ; such as — quis, qui,
qualis, quantus, quot, quotiens, quo, qua, etc. Thus : —
quis venit, who comes ?
quam diu manebit, how long will he stay f
117
1 1 8 Syntax.
2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced —
a) By nonne implying the answer ^yes ' ; as, —
nonne vides, do you tiot see?
. b) By num implying the answer '■ no ' ; as, —
num expectas, do you expect? {i.e. you dojiH expect, do you f)
c) By the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word, and
simply asking for information ; as, —
videsne, do you see ?
A question introduced by -ne may receive a special im-
plication from the context ; as, —
sensistine, did you not perceive ?
d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of
surprise or indigjiation ; as, —
tu in judicum conspectum venire audes, do you dare to
come into the presence of tJie judges f
3. Rhetorical Questions. Questions are sometimes
such merely in form, being employed to express an
emphatic assertion ; as, quis dubitat, wJio doubts ? {— no
one donbts).
4. Double Questions. Double Questions are intro-
duced by the following particles : —
iitrum
. . . an
ne . .
. . an
. . an
If the second member is negative, annon (less often necne) is used.
Examples : —
utrum honestum est an turpe, 1
honestumne est an turpe, \ is it honorable or base ?
honestum est an turpe, J
suntne di annon, are there gods or not ?
a. By an ellipsis of the first member, an sometimes stands alone.
Its force depends upon the context ; as, —
A rebus gerendis abstrahit senectus. Quibus? An
eis quae juventute geruntur et viribus? Old age {it is
alleged) withdraws meti from active pursuits. Fro7n what
pursuits ? Is it not merely from those which are perfortned
by the strength of youth f
Simple and Compound Sentences. 119
5. Answers.
a. The answer Yes is expressed by ita, etiam, vero,
sane, or by repetition of the verb ; as, —
*visne locum mutemus?' 'sane.' ' Shall we change the
place?'' '• Certahily .''
<estisne vos legati? ' ' sumus.' '■Are you envoys ? ' ' Yes.''
b. The answer No is expressed by non, minime,
. minime vero, or by repeating the verb with a
negative ; as, —
' jam ea praeteriit? ' 'non.' ^ Has it passed f '•No.''
* estne f rater intus ? ' ' non est.' ' Is your brother withhi ? '
'No.'
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the Sub-
ject and Predicate.
The Subject is that concerning which something is saidy
asked, etc. The Predicate is that which is said, asked,
etc., concerning the Subject.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one
Predicate are called Simple Sentences,. those containing
more are called Compound Sentences. Thus puer libros
legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence ; but puer
libros legit et epistulas scribit, the boy reads books and
writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different
members of a compound Sentence are called Clauses.
165. Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses. Clauses which
stand upon an equality are called Coordinate ; a Clause dependent
upon another is called Subordinate. Thus in puer libros legit et
epistulas scribit the two clauses are Coordinate ; but in puer libros
legit quos pater scribit, the boy reads the books which his father writes,
the second clause is Subordinate to the first.
1 20 Syntax.
Chapter II. — Syntax of Nouns.
SUBJECT.
166. The Subject of a Finite Verb {i.e. any form of
the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nomi-
native Case.
1 . The Subject may be —
a) A Noun or Pronoun ; as, —
puer scribit, the boy writes ;
hic scribit, t/n's man writes.
b) An Infinitive ; as, —
decorum est pro patria mori, to die for ojte^s country is a
noble thing.
c) A Clause ; as, —
opportune accidit quod venisti, it happened opportunely
that yon arrived.
2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb,
and is not separately expressed ; as, —
scribo, / write ; videt, he sees.
a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is
expressed ; as, —
ego scribo et tu legis, I write, aiid you read.
3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied
from the context, especially the auxiliary sum ; as, —
recte ille {sc. facit), he does rightly j consul profectus {sc. est), the
cojisul set out.
PREDICATE NOUNS.
167. A Predicate Noun is one connected with the Sub^
ject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.
168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in
Case ; ^ as, —
1 For the Predicate Genitive see \\ 198, 3 ; 203, 5.
Predicate Nouns. — Appositives. 1 2 1
Cicero orator f uit, Cicero was an orator ;
Numa oreatus est rex, Nmna was elected king.
• I. When possible the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subject
in Gender also ; as, —
philosophia est vitae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life.
2. Besides sum the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predi-
cate Noun are —
^) fio, evado, existo ; maneo ; videor ; as, —
Croesus non semper mansit rex, Croesus did not always
retnain king.
U) Passive verbs of makings callings regarding., etc. ; as, creor,
appellor, habeor ; as, —
Romulus rex appellatus est, Ro7milns was called king ;
habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.
APPOSITIVES.
169. I. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining
another Noun denoting the same person or thing ; as, —
Cicero consul, Cicero., the Consul;
urbs Roma, the city Rome.
2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case ; as, —
opera Ciceronis oratoris, the works of Cicero., the orator ;
apud Herodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of Herodotics., the
father of history.
3. When possible the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gen-
der also ; as, —
assentatio adjutrix vitiorum, yfa/^^ry, the pro7noter of evils.
4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or
oppidum, with or without a preposition ; as, —
Gorinthi, urbe praeclara, or in urbe praeclara, at Corinth, a fafnous
city.
5. Partitive Apposition. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently
followed by an Appositive denoting a part ; as, —
milites, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restiterunt, the soldiers., all
the bravest of them., resisted the enemy.
122 Syntax.
THE CASES.
THE NOMINATIVE.
170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject,
Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See
§§ 166-169.
THE VOCATIVE.
171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address ; as, —
credite mihi, judices, believe jne. Judges.
1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used
for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose ; as, audi tu,
populus Albanus, hear ye., Albaii people I
2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in
the Nominative ; as, nate, mea magna potentia solus, O son, alone
the source of my great power.
THE ACCUSATIVE.
172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.
173. The Direct Object may express either of the two
following relations : —
A. The Person or Thing Affected by the action ; as, — •
consulem interfecit, he slew the consul]
lego librum, / read the book.
B. The Result Produced by the action; as, —
librum scrips!, I wrote a book {i.e. produced one);
templum struit, he cojistructs a temple.
174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these
two types are Transitive Verbs.
a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used
without it. They are then said to be employed absolutely;
as
rumor est meum gnatum amare, it is rujnored that my
son is in love.
The Accusative. 123
Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.
175. I. This is the most frequent use of the Accu-
sative; as in —
parentes amamus, we love our parents ;
mare aspicit, /le gazes at the sea.
2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind
are worthy of note : —
a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposi-
tion, become Transitive. Thus : —
i) Compounds of circum, praeter, trans ; as, —
hostes circumstare, to surround the etieniy ,•
urbem praeterire, to pass by the city ;
muros transcendere, to ctimd over the walls.
2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub ; as,—
adire urbem, to visit the city ;
peragrare Italiam, to travel through Italy ;
inire magistratum, to take office ;
subire periculum, to undergo danger.
V) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have
also a Transitive use ; as, —
queror fatum, I lauient fny fate ;
doleo ejus mortem, I grieve at his death ;
rideo tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly.
So also lugeo, maereo, mourn; gemo, bemoan; horreo,
shudder, and others.
^) The impersonals decet, it becomes ; dedecet, it is unbecom-
ing; juvat, // pleases, take the Accusative of the Person
Affected ; as, —
me decet haec dicere, it becoines me to say this.
d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage,
are employed as Middles (§ 256, i ; 2), and take the Accusa-
tive as Object ; as, —
galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet ;
cinctus tempora hedera, having bound his teittples with
ivy ;
nod5 sinus coUecta, having gathered her dress i}i a knot.
1 24 Syntax.
Accusative of the Result Produced.
176. I. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in
such expressions as —
librum scribo, / write a book ;
domum aedifico, / d^a/d a house.
2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Projiouftj or
Adjective used as an Accusative of Result. Thus : —
a) A Neuter Pronoun; as, —
haec gemebat, he 7nade these moans ]
illud glorior, / tnake this boast ;
eadem peccat, he makes the sa77ie mistakes.
b) A Neuter Adjective, — particularly Adjectives of number 01
afnou9it, — multum, multa, omnia, pauca, etc. ; as, —
multa dubito, / have ma7iy doubts ;
pauca studet, he has few i7iterests ;
multum valet, he has great stre7igth ;
nihil progreditur, he 77iakes no progress.
Note. — In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as, —
mlnitanteni vana, making vain threats;
acerba tuens, _^/z^/;;^ a fierce look;
dulce loquentem, sweetly talking.
3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives
grows out of this Accusative ; as, —
multum sunt in venatione, they are much engaged in Minting.
a. So also plurimum, very greatly; plerumque, generally;
aliquid, somewhat] quid, why? nihil, not at all] etc.
4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result
which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a Cog-
nate Accusative, and is usually modified by an Adjective ; as, —
sempiternam servitutem serviat. let hi77i serve an everlasting slavery ]
vitam duram vTxi, / have lived a hard life.
a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred ety-
mology, but merely of kindred meaning ; as, —
stadium currit, he runs a race ]
Olympia vincit, he wins an Oly77ipic victory.
The Accusative. .125
5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and
smelling] as, —
piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea ;
orationes antiquitatem ledolent, the speeches smack 0/ the past.
Two Accusatives — Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.
177. I . Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Show-
ing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person
or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative ; as, —
me heredem fecit, he made jne heir.
Here me is Direct Object, heredem Predicate Accusative.
So also —
eum judicem cepere, they took him as judge ;
urbem Romam vocavit, he called the city Rome;
se virum praestitit, he showed hi?ns elf a man.
2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a
Noun ; as, —
homines caecos reddit cupiditas, covetousness renders 7nen blind;
Apollo Socratem sapientissimum judicavit, Apollo adjudged Soc-
rates the wisest ?nan.
a. Some Verbs, as reddo, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predi-
cate Accusative,
3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the
Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative; as, —
urbs Roma vocata est, the city was called Rome.
a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction ; reddo and eflacio, for
example, never take it.
Two Accusatives — Person and Thing.
178. I. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the
Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced.
Thus : —
d) Yerhs oi requesting ZTid. demanding f as, —
otium divos rogat, he asks the gods for rest;
me duas orationes postulas, you demand two speeches of
me.
126 Syntax.
So also oro, posco, reposco, exposco, flagito, though
some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative
of the Person ; as, —
opem a te posco, I demand aid of you. ^
^) Verbs oi teaching (doceo and its compounds); as, —
te litteras doceo, / teach yon your letters.
c) Verbs of inquiring ; as, —
te haec rogo, I ask yon this ;
te sententiam rogo^ I ask you your opinion.
d^ Several Special Verbs ; viz. moneo, admoneo, commoneo,
cogo, accuse, arguo, and a few others. These admit only
a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing ;
as,—
te haec moneo, I give you this advice;
me id accusas, you bring this accusation against me.
id cogit nos natura, nature coinpels us {to) this.
e) One Verb of concealing., celo ; as, —
non te celavi sermonem, / have not concealed the conver^
sat ion from you.
1. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person be-
comes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained ; as,—
omnes artes edoctus e%t., he was taught all accomplishments ;
rogatus sum sententiam, / was asked 77iy opinion ;
aliquid admonemur, we are given some admonition.
a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.
Two Accusatives with Compounds.
179« I. Transitive compounds of trans may take two
Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other
upon the Preposition ; as, —
milites fltimen traducit, he leads his soldiers across the river.
2. With other compounds this construction is rare.
3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is
retained ; as, —
milites fliimen traducebantur, the soldiers were led across the river.
The Accusative. 127
Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.
180. I . The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part
to which an action or quality refers ; as, —
tremit artus, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble ;
nuda genu, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare ;
mantis revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied.
2. Note that this construction —
a) Is borrowed from the Greek.
b) Is chiefly confined to poetry.
c) Usually refers to a part of the body.
d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.
Accusative of Time and Space.
181. I. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are de-
noted by the Accusative ; as, —
quadraginta annos vixit, he lived forty years ;
hic locus passus sescentos aberat, this place was six hundred paces
away.
arbores quinquaginta pedes altae, trees fifty feet high.
abhinc tres annos, three years ago.
2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,
per duos annos laboravi, I toiled throughout two years.
Accusative of Limit of Motion.
182. I. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used —
^) With names of Towns., Small Islands, and Peninsulas ; as, —
Romam veni, /came to /^ome ;
Athenas proficiscitur, he sets out for Athens \
Delum perveni, I arrived at Delos.
U) With domum, domos, rus ; as, —
domum revertitur, he returns home ;
riis lb 6, / shall go to the country.
Note. — When domus means house (i.e. building), it takes a prep-
osition ; as, —
in domum veterem remigrare, to 7nove back to an old house.
128 Syntax.
2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require
a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion ; as, —
Ad Italiam venit, he came to Italy.
a. The Preposition is also customary when the Accusatives
urbeni or oppidum stand in apposition with the name
of a town ; as, —
Cirtam in urbem, to the city Cirta ;
Genevam ad oppidum, 7<9 the town Geneva.
b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be com-
bined with the name of a country or other word dependent
upon a preposition ; as, —
Thurios in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thiirii in Italy ;
cum Acen ad exercitum venisset, when he had come to
the ar?}iy at Ace.
3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, ad is
used ; as, —
ad Tarentum veni, I came to the vicinity of Tarentn7n ;
ad Cannas pugna facta est, a battle was foitght near Cannes.
4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be
used without a preposition to express the limit of motion ; as, —
italiam venit, he came to Italy.
5. The ^(?(3:/ notion seems to represent the original function of the
Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in
the phrase infitias ire, to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few
other similar expressions.
Accusative in Exclamations.
183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjec-
tive, is used in Exclamations ; as, —
me miserum ah, wretched me !
6 fallacem spem, oh, deceptive hope I
Accusative as SuDject of the Infinitive.
184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusa-
tive ; as, —
. video hominem abire, / see that the man is going away.
The Accusative. — The Dative. 129
Other Uses of the Accusative.
185. Here belong —
1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives ; viz. —
id genus, of that kind-, as, homines id genus, men of that
kind (originally homines, id genus hominum, men.) that
kind of 7nen);
virile secus, muliebre secus, of the mate sex, of the female sex
meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, etc. ;
bonam partem, in large part ;
maximam -paitein, for the most part.
2. Some phrases of doubtful origin ; as, —
id temporis, at that time', quod si, but if',
id aetatis, at that time ; cetera, /;/ other respects ;
dextrum, on the right ; laevum, on the left.
THE DATIVE.
186. The Dative case in general expresses relations
which are designated in English by the prepositions to
and for.
Dative of Indirect Object.
187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the
person to whom something is given, said, or done. Thus : — ■
I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accu-
sative ; as, —
hanc pecuniam mihi dat, he gives 7ne this ynoney ;
haec nobis dixit, he said this to us.
a. Some verbs which take this construction also admit another,
particularly the verbs dono and circumdo. Thus : —
Either Themistocli munera donavit, he presented gifts to
Themistocles, or
Themistoclem muneribus donavit, he presented Thetnis-
tocles with gifts ;
urbi muros circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or
urbem muris circumdat, he surroutids the city with walls.
1 30 Syntax.
II. With many intransitive verbs ; as, —
nulli labor! cedit, he yields to ?io labor j
tibi suscenseo, I am angry with y on.
a. Here belong many verbs signifying favor^ help, injure^
please., displease., trust., distr7ist, coj/wia^id, obey, serve, resist,
indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, believe, persuade, and
the hke ; as, —
Caesar popularibus favet, Caesar favors {i.e. is favorable
to) the popular party ;
amicis confido, I trust {to) 7ny friettds ;
militibus ignoscit, he pardons {i.e. grants pardon to) the
troops ;
Orgetorix HelvetiTs persuasit, Orgetorix persuaded {made
it acceptable to) the Helvetians ;
bonis nocet qui mails parcit, he injures {does hartn to)
the good, who spares the bad.
Note. — It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by
virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intrans-t-
tive, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent Eng-
lish equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as, juvo, laedc,
delects. Thus: audentes deus juvat, God helps the bold; nemlnera
laesit, he injured no one.
b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only imper-
sonally ; as, —
tibi parcitur, you are spared ;
mihi persuadetur, /am being persuaded]
61 invidetur, he is envied.
III. With many verbs compounded with the preposi-
tions : ad, ante, com-,^ in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub,
super, and sometimes circum.
These verbs fall into two main classes, — ■
I. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indi-
rect object become capable of doing so when compounded with a
preposition ; as, —
afflictis succurrit, he helps the afflicted ',
exercitui praefuit, he was in coitwiand of the army ;
intersum consiliis, I share in the deliberations .
1 Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once gov-
erned the Dative. '^ This was the original form of the proposition cum.
The Dative. 131
2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become
capable, when compounded, of taking a Dative also as indirect
object; as, —
pecuniae pudorem anteponit, he puts honor before money ;
inicere spem amicls, to inspire hope in one's friends ;
Labienum exercitui praefecit, he put Labienus in charge of the
ariny.
Dative of Reference.
188. I. The Dative of Reference denotes the person to
whom a statement refers, of zvJwm it is tfiie, or to who7n it
is of i^tterest ; as, —
mihi ante oculos versaris, you hover before ??iy eyes (lit. hover before
the eyes to 7ne) ;
ill! severitas amorem non deminuit, in his case severity did not
diuiinish love (lit. to him severity did jiot diminish) ;
intercMdere hostibus commeatum, to cjit off the supplies of the
enemy.
a. Note the phrase alicui interdicere aqua et igni, to interdict one
from fire and water.
Note. — The Dative of Reference, unhke the Dative of Indirect Object, does
not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where,
according to the Enghsh idiom, we should expect a Genitive ; so in the first and
third of the above examples.
2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are —
«) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a
participle ; as, —
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, the
first towjt of Thessaly as you come fro7n Epirus (lit.
to those co7mngfro?n £.).
b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative con-
structions of the personal pronouns in which the connection
of the Dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very
slightest sort ; as, —
tu mihi istius audaciam defendia? tell me, do you defend
that man's audacity ?
quid mihi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing?
quid sibi vult? what does he jneanf (lit. wish for hint'
self?)
1^2 Syntax.
c) Dative of Person Judging ; as, —
erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god to me
{i.e. in my opinion) ;
quae ista servitus tam claro homini, how can that be
slavery to so illustrious a man {i.e. to his mind) !
d) Dative of Separation. Compounds of ab, de, ex, ad
which have the general sense of taking away govern a
Dative of the person, less often of the thing ; as, —
honoreni detraxerunt homini, they took away the honor
from the man ;
Caesar r€gi tetrarchiam eripuit, Caesar took the tetrarchy
away from the king;
silici scintillam excudit, he struck a spark from the flint.
Dative of Agency.
189. The Dative is used to denote agency —
I. Regularly with the Gerundive; as, —
haec nobis agenda sunt, these things imist be done by us ;
mihi eundum est, / mi/st go (lit. it must be gone by me).
a. To avoid ambiguity, a with the Ablative is sometimes used with the
Gerundive; as, —
hostibus a nobis parcendum est, the enemy must be spared by us.
1. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive
voice and the perfect passive participle ; as, —
disputatio, quae mihi nuper habita est, the discussion which was
recently conducted by me.
3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive ; as, —
honesta bonis viris quaeruntur, 7wble ends are sought by good ?nen.
Dative of Possession.
190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse
in such expressions as : —
mihi est liber, / hai^e a book ;
mihi nomen est Marcus, I have the ftajne Marcus.
I. But with nomen est the name is more commonly attracted
into the Dative ; as, mihi nomen est Marco.
The Dative. 133
Dative of Purpose.
191. The Dative of Purpose designates the end toward
which an action is directed or for ivhich something exists.
It is used —
1 . Unaccompanied by another Dative ; as, —
castris locum deligere, to choose a place for a camp ;
legi5nes praesidio relinquere, to leave the legions as a guard (lit
for a guard) ;
receptui canere, to sound the signal for a retreat.
2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative ot
the person : —
a) Especially with some form of esse ; as, —
fortunae tuae mihi curae sunt, your fortunes are a care
to me (lit. for a care) ;
nobis sunt odio, they are an object of hatred to us ;
cui bono? to whom is it of advantage?
b) With other verbs ; as, —
hos tibi muneri misit, he has sent these to you for a pre^
ent;
Pausanias Atticis venit auxilio, Pausanias came to the
aid of the Atheniatts (lit. to the Athenians for help).
3. In connection with the Gerundive; as, —
decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws.
me gerendo bello ducem creavere, tne they have made leader for
carry i7tg on the war.
Note. — This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.
Dative -with Adjectives.
192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds
very closely to its use with verbs. Thus : —
I. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with
adjectives signifying : friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar, equalf
near, related to, etc. ; as, —
mihi inimicus, hostile to me ;
sunt proximi Germauis, they are next to the Germans ;
noxiae poena par esto, let the penalty be equal to the damage.
134 Syntax.
a. For propior and proximus, with the Accusative, see
§ 141, 3-
2. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose the Dative occurs with
adjectives signifying : suitable, adapted, fit ] as, —
castris idoneus locus, a place fit for a camp ;
apta dies sacrificio, a day suitable for a sacrifice.
Note. — Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.
Dative of Direction.
193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the
direction of motion ; as, —
it clamor caelo, t/ie shoid goes heavenward \
cineres rivo fluent! jace, cast the ashes toward the flowing stream.
I. By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use
the Dative to denote the //;;/// of motiofi ; as, —
dum Latio deos inferret, while he was bringitig his gods to Lo:tiu7n.
THE GENITIVE.
194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and
Verbs.
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.
195. With Nouns the Genitive is the case which defines the
meaning of the limited noun more closely. This relation is
generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There
are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns : —
Genitive of Orig-in, Objective Genitive,
Genitive of Material, Genitive of the Whole,
Genitive of Possession, Appositional Genitive,
Subjective Genitive, Genitive of Quality.
196. Genitive of Origin ; as, —
Marci filius, the son of Marcus.
197. Genitive of Material ; as, —
talentum auri, a talent of gold;
modius frumenti, a peck of grain.
The Dative. — The Genitive. 135
198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership ; as, —
domus Ciceronis, Cicero's house.
1 . Here belongs the Genitive with causa and gratia. The Geni-
tive always precedes ; as, —
hominum causa, /"^r the sake of inen ;
meorum amicorum. gratia, for the sake of my friends .
2. Instar (lit. image) also takes the Possessive Genitive; as, —
equus instar mentis, a horse as large as a mountain.
3. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially
with esse and fieri; as, —
domus est regis, the house is the king's ;
stulti est in errore manere, tt is {the part) of a fool to remain in
error ;
de bello judicium imperatoris est, non militum, the decision con-
cerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers.
199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes the person who makes
or produces something or who has a feeling; as, —
dicta Platonis, the utterances of Plato ;
timores liberorum, the fears of the children.
200. Objective Genitive. This denotes the object of an action
or feeling', as, —
metus deorum, the fear of the gods ',
amor libertatis, love of liberty,
consuetudo bonorum hominum, intercourse with good men.
I. This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions ; as, —
amor erga parentes, love toward one^s parents.
201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the whole of
which a part is taken. It is used —
I. With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal
Numerals; as, —
magna pars hominum, a great part of mankind ;
duo milia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers ;
quis mortalium, who of mortals ?
major fratrum, the elder of the brothers ',
gens maxima Germanorum, the largest tribe of the Germans i
primus omnium, the first of all.
136 Syntax,
a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or de with
the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quidam ; as, —
fldelissimus de servis, the most trusty of the slaves;
quidam ex amicis, certain of his friends ;
unus ex militibus, one of the soldiers.
J. In English we often use <?/ where there is no relation of whole to part.
In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the Genitive ;
as, —
quot vos estis, how many of you are there?
trecenti conjuravimus, three hundred of us have conspired {i.e.
we, three hundred in number).
2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nomi-
native or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives
used substantively ; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim
when used substantively ; as, —
quid consili, what purpose f
tantum cibi, so much food',
plus auctoritatis, inore authority \
minus laboris, less labor]
satis pecuniae, enough 7nottey ;
parum industriae, too little industry.
a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be em-
ployed as a Genitive of the Whole ; as, nihil boni, nothing good.
b. But Adjectives of the thif d declension agree directly with the noun they
limit; as, nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter.
3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon
Adverbs of place ; as, —
ubi terrarum? ubi gentium? where in the world?
a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in depend-
ence upon pridie and postridie, but only in the phrases pridie
ejus diei, on the day before that; postridie ejus diei, on the day
after that.
202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the
force of an appositive ; as, —
nomen regis, the name of king;
poena mortis, the penalty of death;
ars scribendi, the art of writing.
203. Genitive of Quality. The Genitive modified by an Adjec-
tive is used to denote quality. This construction presents several
varieties. Thus it is used —
The Genitive. 137
1 . To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person
or thing ; as, —
vir magnae virtutis, a 7nan of great virtue ;
rationes ejus modi, considerations of that sort.
a. Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction, chiefly
mag-nus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.
2. To denote measure {breadth^ length, etc^ ; as, —
fossa quindecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide (or deep) ;
exsilium decem annorum, ajt exile of tefi years.
3. By omission of preti (price), or some kindred word, tanti,
quanti, parvi, magni, minoris, minimi, plurimi, maximi are used
predicatively to denote indefinite value ; as, —
niilla studia tanti sunt, no stzidies are of so much value*,
magni opera ejus existimata est, his assistance was highly esteetned.
a. Pluris (not strictly an adjective) follows the same analogy.
4. By an extension of the notion of value, quanti, tantl, pluris,
and minoris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote
indefinite price ; as, —
quanti aedes emisti, at how high a price did you purchase the house?
5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be
used predicatively ; as, —
tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem, of so great difficulty
was it to found the Roman race.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.
204. The Genitive is used with many Adjectives to limit
the extent of their application. Thus : —
I. With Adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity^
memory., participation, power, fulness, and their opposites ; as, —
studiosus disoendi, desirous of learning;
peritus belli, skilled in war;
insuetus laboris, unused to toil;
immemor mandati tui, unmitidfid of your commission;
plena periculorum est vita, life is full of dangers.
a. Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,—
dilig-ens veritatis. fmd of truth;
amaus patriae, devoted to one's country.
158 Syntax.
2. Sometimes with proprius and communis; as, —
viri propria est fortitude, bravery is characteristic of a man.
memoria est comniunis omnium artium, me7}iory is common to all
professions.
a. proprius and communis are also construed with the Dative.
3. With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in
Cicero, when the reference is to living objects ; as, —
filius patris simillimus est, the son is exactly like his father.
mei similis, like me ; vestri similis, like y on.
When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur ; as, —
mors somno (or somni) similis est, death. is like sleep.
4. In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives
is extended far beyond earlier limits ; as, atrox Qjvivafi., fierce of temper; incertus
c5nsilii, undecided in purpose.
GENITIVE WITH VERBS.
205. The Genitive is used with the following classes
of Verbs : —
Memini, Reminiscor, OblTviscor.
206. I. When referring to Persons —
a. memini takes the Genitive in the significations / dear in
mittd (memor sum), a7n mindful of, or 7nake mention of;
but the Accusative in the signification, I recall; as, —
vivorum memini, I a77t 77iitidful of the living;
Achilles cujus supra meminimus, Achilles, of ivhom iv^
77tade 7}ientio7i above ;
SuUam memini, I recall Sulla.
b. obliviscor regularly takes the Genitive ; as, —
Epicuri non licet oblivisci, we 7mist7iH forget Epicurus.
2. When referring to Things, memini, reminiscor, obli-
viscor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, appar-
ently without difference of meaning ; as, —
animus praeteritorum meminit, the mind re7nembers the past ;
meministine nomina, do you re77ie77iber the Jta77ies?
reminiscere veteris incommodi, re77ie77iber the for77ier disaster;
reminiscens acerbitatem, remembering the severity.
The Genitive. 139
a. But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly stand
in the Accusative ; as, —
haec memini, / remetnber this;
multa reminiscor, / reinember many things.
3. The phrase mihi (tibi, etc?) in mentem venit, following the analogy of
memini, takes the Genitive ; as, —
civium mihi in mentem venit, I remeinber the citizens.
Admoneo, Commoneo, Commonefacio.
207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the
person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing; as, —
te admoneo amicitiae nostrae, I remind you of our friendship.
a. But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take dS
with the Ablative ; as, —
de pectlnia me admones, you remind me of the money.
b. A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in
the Accusative ; as, —
te hoc admoneo, I give you this warning.
Verbs of Judicial Action.
208. I. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take
the Genitive of the charge; as, —
me furti accusat, he accuses me of theft ;
Verrem avaritiae coarguit, -^^ convicts Verres of avarice]
impietatis absolutus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy .
2. N txh^ oi Condemning \.2^Q —
a. The Genitive of the charge ; as, —
pecuniae publicae damnatus, condemned (on the charge)
of e77ibezzleinent (lit. public jnoney) ;
capitis damnatus, condemned on a capital charge (lit. on a
charge involving his head) .
b. The Ablative of the penalty ; as, —
capite damnatus est, he was condemned to death ;
mille nummis damnatus est, he was condemned (to Pay)
a thousand sesterces (lit. by a thousand sesterces ^ Abl. of
Means).
140 Syntax.
3. Note the phrases : —
voti daranatus, voti reus, having attained one's prayer (lit. condemned on the
score of one's vow) ;
de vi, {accused, convicted, etc.) of assault ;
Inter sicarios, {accused, convicted, etc.) of murder.
Genitive •with Impersonal Verbs.
209. I. The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet,
piget take the Accusative of the person affected, along
with the Genitive of the person or thing toward whom the
feeling is directed ; as, —
pudet me tui, I am asha7ned of you (lit. // shames me of you) ;
paenitet me hujus facti, T repetit of this act]
eum taedet vitae, he is weary of life;
pauperum te miseret, you pity the poor.
a. Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or Neuter
Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus : —
me paenitet hoc fecisse, / repent of having done this ;
me hoc pudet, / atn ashamed of this.
2. Misereor and miseresco also govern the Genitive ; as, —
miseremini sociorum, pity the allies.
Interest, Refert
210. With interest, it concerns, three points enter into
consideration; viz. —
a) the person concerned ;
b) the thijig about which he is concerned ;
c) the extent of his concern.
211. I. The person concerned is regularly denoted by
the Genitive ; as, —
patris interest, it concerns the father.
a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, mei,
tui, etc., the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of
the Possessive, viz. : mea, tua, etc. ; as, —
mea interest, // concerns me.
Note. — But the Latin says omnium nostrum interest, it concerns us all.
The Genitive. 141
2. The thing about which a person is concerned is
denoted —
d) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject ; as, —
hoc rei publicae interest, this concerns the state.
b) by an Infinitive; as, —
omnium interest valere, // concerns alt to keep welt.
c) by an Indirect Question ; as, —
mea interest quando venias, / a?n concerned as to when
yoii are coming.
3. The degree of concerjt is denoted —
a^ by the Genitive (of Quality) : magni, parvi, etc. ; as, —
mea magni interest, // concerns me greatly.
b) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maxime, etc. ; as, —
civium minime interest, it concerns the citizens very little.
c) by the Neuters, multum, plus, minus, etc. ; as, —
multum vestra interest, it concerns you much.
4. Refert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely
takes the Genitive of the person. Thus : —
mea refert, it concerns me ;
but rarely illius refert, it concerns him.
Genitive ^writh Other Verbs.
212. I. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern
the Genitive ; as, —
pecuniae indiges, you need 7noney.
a These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (§ 214, i) ;
indigeo is the only verb which has a preference for the
Genitive.
2. Potior though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes
takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust ; and regularly in the
phrase : potiri rerum, to get control of affairs.
3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as, —
desine querellaruna, cease your complaints ;
operum ^oVJXl, freed froyn their tasks.
142 Syntax.
THE ABLATIVE.
213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which
were originally distinct both in form and in meaning; viz. —
The Ablative or from-case.
The Instrumental or with-case.
The Locative or where-case.
The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into
Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental uses, and Locative
uses.
GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.
Ablative of Separation.
214. The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimes
with, sometimes without, a preposition.
I. The following words regularly take the Ablative without a
preposition : —
a) The Verbs oifreemg: libero, solvo, levo ;
b) The Verbs of depriving: privo, spolio, exuo, fraudo,
nudo ;
c) The Verbs of lacking: egeo, careo, vaco ;
d) The corresponding Adjectives, liber, inanis, vacuus,
nudus, and some others of similar meaning.
Thus : —
curls ITberatus, freed fro7n cares ;
Caesar hostes armis exuit, Caesar stripped the enemy of
their arms ;
caret sensu communi, he tacks common sense ;
auxilio eget, he needs help ;
bonorum vita vacua est metu, the life of the good is free
from fear .
Note i. — Yet Adjectives and libero may take the preposition ab, — regu-
larly so with the Ablative of persons ; as, —
■urbem a tyranno liberarunt, they freed the city from the tyrant.
Note 2. — Indigeo usually takes the Genitive. See \ 212, i, a.
The Ablative. 143
2. Of Verbs signifying to keep frojn, to remove, to withdraw, some
take the preposition, others omit it. The same Verb often admits both
constructions. Examples : —
abstinere cibo, to abstain from food ;
hostes finibus prohibuerunt, they kept the enemy from their borders ;
praedones ab insula prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island.
3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prep-
osition, particularly compounds of dis- and se- ; as, —
dissentio a te, I dissent fro?n you ',
secernantur a nobis, let thejn be separated from us.
Ablative of Source.
215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles
natus and ortus (in poetry also with editus, satus, and some
others), to designate parentage or station ; as, —
Jove natus, son of Jupiter ;
summo loco natus, high-born (lit. born fro77i a very high place^ ;
nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family .
1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,—
ex me natus, sprung from me.
2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriundus (with or
without ab), is used ; as, —
ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses.
Ablative of Agent.
216. The Ablative accompanied by a (ab) is used with
passive verbs to denote th.Q personal agent ; as, —
a Caesare accusatus est, he was arraigned by Caesar.
1. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when
personified, may be construed as the personal agent. Thus : —
hostes a fortuna deserebantur, the enemy were deserted by Fortune',
a multitudine hostium montes tenebantur, the itiountains were held
by a jmdtitude of the enemy.
2. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus : —
a canibus laniatus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs.
144 Syntax.
Ablative of Comparison.
217. I. The Ablative is often used with Comparatives
in the sense of tlia7i; as, —
melle dulcior, sweeter than honey ;
patria mihi vita carior est, my country is dearer to me than life.
2. This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam
{than) with the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must
be used ; as, —
tul studiosior sum quam illius, I am fonder of yon than of hiin.
Studiosior illo would have meant, I ain fonder of you than he is.
3. Plus, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equiv-
alents of plus quam, minus quam, etc. Thus : —
amplius viginti urbes incenduntur, 7nore thajt twenty cities are
fired ;
minus quinque milia processit, he advanced less than five miles.
4. Note the use of opinione with Comparatives ; as, —
opinione celerius venit, he comes more quickly than expected (lit. than opinion).
INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.
Ablative of Means.
218. The Ablative is used to denote means or instru-
ment; as, —
Alexander sagitta vulneratus est, Alexander was wounded by an
arrow.
There are the following special varieties of this Ablative : —
I . Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds take
the Ablative ; as, —
divitiis utitur, he uses his wealth (lit. he benefits himself by his
wealth) ;
vita fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. he enjoys himself by life) ;
munere fungor, /perform my duty (lit. I busy myself with duty);
carne vescuntur, they eat flesh (\\\.. feed themselves by means of) ;
urbe potitus est, he got possession of the city (lit. 7nade himself power-
fd by the city).
a. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. See § 212, 2.
The Ablative. 145
2. With opus est (rarely usus est), there is need', as, —
duce nobis opus est, we need a leader.
a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with
opus as predicate. Thus : —
hoc mihi opus est, this is necessary for 7ne.
b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux
nobis opus est is a rare form of expression.
c. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus
est ; as, —
opus est properato, there is need of haste.
3 . With nitor, innixus, and f retus ; as, —
nititur hasta, he rests 071 a spear (lit. supports hiinself by a spear') ;
fretus virtute, relyi7ig on virtue (lit. supported by virtue) .
4. With contineri, consistere, constare, consist of', as, —
nervis et ossibus continentur, they co7isist of sinews and bo7tes (lit.
they are held together by si7tews a7id bones) ;
mortal! consistit corpore mundus, the world co7isists of 7nortal sub-
stance (lit. holds together by 77ieans of etc.).
5. With miscere and mutare ; as, —
mella vino miscere, to 7nix ho7iey with wine ;
pacem bello mutant, they cha7ige peace for war (lit. with war).
6. In expressions of the type : —
quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with this 77ia7i ?
quid mea Tulliola fiet, what will beco7ne of 77iy dear Tullia ? (lit. what
will be do7ie with her ?)
7. In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary
English idiom : —
proelio contendere, vincere, to C07ite7td, conquer in battle;
proelio lacessere, to provoke to battle ;
assuetus (assuef actus) labore, accusto7ned to toil ;
curru vehT, to ride i7i a chariot ;
pedibus ire, to go 07ifoot ;
tibiis (fidibus) canere, to play the flute (lyre);
pila ludere, to play ball;
castris se tenere, to keep i7i camp ;
and some others.
L
1 46 Syntax.
8. With Verbs oi Jillmg 2in& Adjectives oi plenty ; as, —
fossas virgultis complerunt, they Ji lied the trenches with brush.
a. But plenus more commonly takes the Genitive. See § 204, i.
9. Under ' Means ' belongs also the Ablative of the way by
which ; as, —
vinum Tiberi devectum, wine brought down {by) the Tiber.
10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus : —
militibus a lacu Lemanno ad montem Juram murum perducit, with
{i.e. by means of) his troops he runs a wall from Lake Geneva to Mt. Jura.
Ablative of Cause.
219. The Ablative is used to denote cause ; as, —
multa gloriae cupiditate fecit, he did many things on account of his
love of glory.
1 . So especially with verbs denoting mental states ; as, delector,
gaudeo, laetor, glorior, fido, confido. Also with contentus ;
as, —
fortuna amici gaudeo, / rejoice at the fortune of my friend {i.e. on
account of it) ;
victoria sua gloriantur, they exult over their victory ',
natura loci confidebant, they trusted in the character of their
country (lit. were coftfdejit on account of the character).
a. fido and confidS always take the Dative of the person (§ 187, II. d)\
sometimes the Dative of the thing.
2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives
as jussu, by order of injussii, rogatii, etc.
Ablative of Manner.
220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote man-
ner ; as, —
cum gravitate loquitur, he speaks with dignity.
1. The preposition may be omitted when the Ablative is modified
by an adjective ; as, —
magna gravitate loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.
2. The preposition is regularly omitted in the expressions jure,
injuria, joco, vi, fraude, voluntate, furto, silentio.
I
The Ablative. 147
3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that 171 ac-
cordance with which or /« pursuance of which anything is or is done.
It is generally used without a preposition. Thus : —
mea sententia, according to my opinio7i ;
suis moribus, in accordance with their custojn ;
sua sponte, vo/untari/y, of their own accord',
Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.
221. The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant
circitinstance of an action or an event ; as, —
bonis auspiciis, imder good auspices ;
nulla est altercatio clamoribus umquam habita niajoribus, no
debate was ever held under circumstances of greater applause]
exstinguitur ingenti luctu provinciae, he dies under circumstances
of great grief on the part of the province ;
longo intervallo sequitur, he follows at a great distance.
Ablative of Accompaniment.
222. The Ablative with cum is used to denote accompa-
niment; as, —
cum comitibus profectus est, he set out with his attendants ;
cum febri rediit, he returned with a fever.
I. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum
when modified by any adjective except a numeral ; as, —
omnibus copiis, ingenti exercitu, magna manii ; but always cum
exercitu, cum duabus legionibus.
Ablative of Degree of Difference.
223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words
involving comparison (as post, ante, Infra, supra ; superare,
sttrpass) to denote the degree of difference ; as, —
dimidio minor, smaller by a half;
tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher ;
paulo post, a little afterwards ;
quo plura habemus, eo cupimus ampliora, the more we have, the
more we want.
148 Syntax.
Ablative of Quality.
224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to
denote quality ; as, —
puella eximia forma, a girl of exceptional beaiity ;
vir singular! industria, a fnaft of singular industry.
1. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively ; as, —
est magna prudentia, he is {a 7nan) of great wisdom ;
bono animo sunt, t/iey are of good courage.
2. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive ; as, —
sunt specie et colore tauri, they are of the appearance and color of a bull.
3. In all numerical designations of weight, value, dimension, etc., the Genitive
of Quality takes the place of the Ablative of Quality. See § 203. 2.
Ablative of Price.
225. With verbs of buying and sellijtg, price is desig-
nated by the Ablative ; as, —
servum quinque minis emit, he bought the slave for five minae.
I . The Ablatives magnO; plurimo, parvo, minimo (by omission
of pretio) are used to denote indefinite price j as, —
aedes magno vendidit, he sold the house for a high price.
3. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see § 203, 4.
Ablative of Specification.
226. The Ablative of Specification is used to denote
that in respect to which something is or is done ; as, —
Helvetii omnibus Gallis virtute praestabant, the Helvetians sur-
passed all the Gauls in valor ;
pede claudus, lame in his foot.
1. Note the phrases : —
major natu, older (lit. greater as to age);
minor natu, younger.
2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus and
indignus ; as, —
digni honore, worthy of honor ;
fide indigni, unworthy of confidence.
The Ablative. 149
Ablative Absolute.
227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically inde-
pendent of the rest of the sentence. In its commonest
form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a
participle ; as, —
urbe capta, Aeneas fugit, when the city had been captured, Aeneas
fled (lit. the city having been captured^.
1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun ; as, —
VIVO Caesare res publica salva erat, while Caesar was alive the
state was safe (lit. Caesar being alive') ;
Tarquinio rege, Pythagoras in Italiam venit, in the reign of Tar-
quin Pythagoras cajue into Italy (lit. Tarquin being king) .
Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gftaeus
Ponipey and Marcus Crass us.
2. The Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in
English we employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute
may correspond to a clause denoting —
a) Time, as in the foregoing examples.
b) Condition; as, —
omnes virtutes jacent, voluptate dominante, all virtues
lie prostrate, if pleasure is master.
c) Opposition; as, —
perditis omnibus rebus, virtus se sustentare potest,
though everything else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain
herself.
d) Cause ; as, —
nullo adversante regnum obtinuit, since no one opposed
him, he secured the throne.
e) Attendant circumstance ; as, —
passis palmis pacem. petivgrunt, with hands outstretched
they sued for peace.
3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Abso-
lute construction in Livy and later writers ; as, —
audits eum fugisse, when it was heard that he had fled.
4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction
only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause
in which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.
1 50 Syntax.
LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.
Ablative of Place.
A. Place where.
228. The place where is regularly denoted by the Ab^
lative with a preposition ; as, —
in urbe habitat, he dwells m the city.
I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo-
sition ; viz. —
a) Names of towns, — except Singulars of the First and
Second Declensions ; as, —
Carthagine, at Caj'thage;
Athenis, at Athens ;
Veils, at Veii.
b) The general words loco, locis, parte, also many words modi-
fied b}'' totus or even by other Adjectives ; as, —
hoc loco, at this place ;
totis castris, in the whole cainp.
C) The special words : foris, out of doors', ruri, in the country \
terra marique, on lattd and sea.
d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denot-
ing place ; as, —
stant litore puppes, the ships rest ojt the beach.
B. Place fro?n which."^
229. .Place from which is regularly denoted by the
Ablative with a preposition ; as, —
ab Italia profectus est, he set out froj7i Italy]
ex urbe rediit, he returned froin the city.
I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo-
sition ; viz. —
a) Names of towns and small islands ; as, —
Roma profectus est, he set out from Ro7ne;
Rhodo revertit, he returned from Rhodes.
1 Place from which, though strictly a Genuine Ablative use, is treated here foi
sake of convenience.
The Ablative. 151
U) domo, fro7n hojne ; rure, from the coujitry,
c) Freely in poetry ; as, —
Italia decessit, he withdrew from Italy,
2. With names of towns, ab is used to mean fro?n the vicinity of,
or to denote the point whence distance is measured-, as, —
a Gergovia discessit, he withdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia.
a Roma X milia aberat, he was ten jniles distant fro7n Rome.
Urbe and oppido, when standing in apposition with a town name,
are accompanied by a preposition ; as, —
Curibus ex oppido Sablnorum, from Cures, a town of the Sabines,
Ablative of Time.
A. Time at which.
230. The Ablative is used to denote the time at
ivhicJi ; as, —
quarta hora mortuus est, he died at the fourth hour ;
anno septuagesimo consul creatus, elected consul in his seventieth
year.
1. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this con-
struction, particularly annus, ver, aestas, hiems, dies, nox, hora,
comitia (^Election Day'), ludi {the Games), etc.
2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless
accompanied by a modifier. Thus : —
in pace, in peace; in bello, i7i war;
but secundo bello Punico, in the second Punic War.
3. Expressions like in eo tempore, in summa senectute take
the preposition because they denote situation rather than tiine.
B. Time within which.
231. Time within which is denoted by the Ablat^*
either ivith or without a preposition ; as, —
Stella Saturn! triginta annis cursum confioit, the planet Saturn
cofnpietes its orbit within thirty years ;
ter in anno, thrice in the course of the year.
I. Occasionally the Ablative denotes duration of time ; as, —
biennio prosperas res habuit. for two years he had a prosperous administration.
152 Syntax.
THE LOCATIVE.
232. The Locative case occurs only in the following
words : —
1 . Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands
of the first and second declensions, to denote the place in which; as, —
Romae, at Ro7ne ; Corinthi, at Corinth ;
Rhodi, at Rhodes.
2. In the following special forms : —
domi, at home] humi, on the ground ]
belli, in war ; militiae, i7i war ;
vesperi, at eve?ting; h.Qx\, yesterday.
3. Note the phrase pendere animi, lit. to be in siispense in
one''s 7iiind.
4. Consonant Stems occasionally form a Locative in -1; as, —
Lacedaemoni, at Sparta ; Carthagini,^^ Carthage ;
Tiburi, at Tibur.
Chapter III. — Syn tax of A djectives.
233. I. The word with which an Adjective agrees is
called its Subject.
2. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives. An Attribu-
tive Adjective is one that limits its subject directly; as, —
vir sapiens, a wise ma7i ;
A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through
the medium of a verb (usually esse) ; as, —
vir est sapiens, the 7nan is wise ;
vir videbatur sapiens, the man seejiied wise ',
vir jiidicatus est sapiens, the man was judged wise.
3. Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of
Adjectives.
Agreement of Adjectives. 153
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
234. Agreement with One Noun. When an Adjective
hmits one noun it agrees with it in Gender, Number,
and Case.
1. Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural;
as, prima et vicesima legiones, the first and twentieth legions.
2. A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject
is Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing ; as, —
mors est miserum, death is a wretched thing.
235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns.
A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.
1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees
in number with the nearest noun ; as, —
pater tuus et maXer, your father and 7nother ;
eadem alacritas et studium, the same eagerness and zeal.
2. When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly
Plural ; as, —
pax et Concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious.
B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.
1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees
in gender with the nearest noun ; as, —
res operae multae ac laboris, a matter of much effort and labor.
2. When the Adjective is Predicative —
«) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees
with them in gender; as, —
pater et filius capti sunt, father and son were captured.
Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more
frequently Neuter ; as, —
stultitia et timiditas fugienda snuty folly and cowardice
must be shunned.
54 Syntax.
b') If the nouns are of different gender ; then, —
a) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Mascu-
line ; as, —
pater et mater mortui sunt, the father and itiother have
died.
(3) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neu-
ter ; as, —
honores et victoriae fortuita sunt, honors and victories
are accidental.
y) In case they include both persons and things, the
Adjective is, —
aa) Sometimes MascuHne ; as, —
domus, uxor, liberi invent! sunt, home^ wife, atid children
are secured.
y8/?) Sometimes Neuter ; as, —
parentes, liberos, demos vilia habere, to hold parents,
children, houses, cheap.
yy) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun ; as, —
populi provinciaeque liberatae sunt, nations ajid prov-
inces were liberated.
c) Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Ad-
jective does not agree with a "noun according to strict gram-
matical form, but according to sense ; as, —
pars bestiis objecti sunt, part {of the ineti) were thrown
to beasts.
ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.
236. I. Plural Adjectives used Substantively
Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the
Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter
denotes things ; as, —
docti, scholars ; parva, sinall things ;
mall, the wicked; magna, great things ;
Graeci, the Greeks ; utilia, useful things ;
nostri, our men.
Adjectives used Substantively. 155
2. Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the
Nominative and Accusative cases. Such forms as magnorum, om-
nium ; magnis, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity ; yet
where there is no ambiguity, they sometimes occur; as, —
parva componere magnis, to compare s?nall things with great.
Otherwise the Latin says : magnarum rerum, magnis rebus, etc.
237. Singular Adjectives used Substantively. Ad-
jectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Sin-
gular than in the Plural.
1. Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use ; as, —
probus invidet nemini, the honest man e7ivies nobody.
a. Usually vir, homo, or some similar word is employed ; as, —
homo dootus, a scholar ;
vir Romanus, a Ro7nan.
b. But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so
used; as, —
hic dootus, this scholar',
dootus quidam, a certain scholar.
2. Neuters are likewise infrequent ; as, —
verum, trtith ;
justuxn, justice ;
honestum, virtue.
a. This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the con-
struction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions ; as, —
aliquid veri, something true ;
nihil novi, Jiothlng new ;
in medio, in the midst.
238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the
substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which
have become nouns ; as, —
adversarius, opponent ; hiberna, winter quarters ;
aequalis, contemporary ; propinquus, relative ;
amicus, friend ', socius, partner-,
cognatus, kinsman ; sodalis, comrade ;
vicinus, neighbor ; etc.
156 Syntax.
ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS.
239. The Latin often uses an Adjective where the Eng-
lish idiom employs an Adverb or an adverbial phrase; as, —
senatus frequens convenit, the senate assetnbled in great numbers ;
fuit assiduus mecum, /le was constantly with me.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
240. I. The Comparative often corresponds to the English Positive
with ' rather^ ' somewhat,'' ' foo * ; as, —
senectus est loquacior, o/d age is rather talkative.
2. So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with
^very''; as, —
vir fortissimus, a very brave man.
3. Strengthening Words. Vel and quam are often used with
the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with the force of ' very^
and quam with the force of ' as possible ' ; as, —
vel maximus, the very greatest ;
quam maximae copiae, as great forces as possible.
4. Phrases of the type ' more rich than brave ' regularly take the Comparative
in both members ; as, —
exercitus erat ditior quana fortior, the army was more rich than brave.
OTHER PECULIARITIES.
241. I . Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an object,
chiefly primus, extremus, summus, medius, infimus, imus ; as, —
summus mons, the top of the motmtaijt ;
extrema hieme, in the last part of the winter.
2. Prior, primus, ultimus, and postremus are frequently equiva-
lent to a relative clause ; as, —
primus earn vidi, / was the first who saw her ;
ultimus decessit, he was the last who withdrew.
3. When multus and another adjective both limit the same noun,
et is generally used ; as, —
multae et magnae cogitationes, 7nany {and') great thoii£:hts.
Personal Pronouns. — Possessive Pronouns. 157
Chapter IV. — Syntax of Pronouns,
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
242. I. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs
are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of
emphasis, contrast, or clearness. Thus ordinarily : —
video, T see; amat, he loves.
But ego te video, et tu me vides, / see you, and you see me
2. The Genitives mei, tui, uostri, vestri are used only as Objective
Genitives ; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus : —
memor tui, mindful of you ,
desiderium vestri, lo7tging for you;
nemo vestrum, no o?ie of you.
a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in place of the Pos-
sessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.
3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns
and Verbs. Compare the Eng. editorial ' we.'
4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not
use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus : —
virtus amicitias conciliat et conservat, virtue establishes friend-
ships and 7naintains them (not eas conservat).
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
243. I. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not
employed except for the purpose of clearness. Thus : —
patrem amo, / love my father ,
de filii morte flebas, /^/^ wept for the death of yotir son.
But —
de morte filii mei flebasj/t*;/ wept for the death of jny son.
a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the pos-
sessive usually stands after its noun ; but in order to indi-
cate emphasis or contrast, it precedes ; as, —
sua manu liberos occidit, with his own hand he slew his
children ;
mea quidem sententia, /« ;/// opinion at least.
158 Syntax.
2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of
an Objective Genitive ; as, —
metus vester, fear of you;
desiderium tuum, longing for you.
3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsius or ipsorum, in
apposition with the Genitive idea impUed in the Possessive; as, —
mea ipsius opera, by my own help ;
nostra ipsorum opera, dy our own help ;
a. So sometimes other Genitives; as, —
mea unius opera, dy the assistance o/f?ie alone.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
244. I. The Reflexive Pronoun se and the Possessive
Reflexive suns have a double use : —
1. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or
subordinate) in which they stand, — ^ Direct Reflexives ' ; as, —
se amant, they love themselves ;
suos amicos adjuvat, he helps his own friends ;
eum oravi, ut se servaret, / besought him to save himself.
II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the sub-
ject of the principal clause, — ' Indirect Reflexives ' ; as, —
me oravit ut se defenderem, he besought 7ne to defend hiiTi (lit. that
I defend himself^ ,
me oraverunt, ut fortiinarum suarum defensionem susciperem,
they besought me to undet'take the defe?ise of their for times.
a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses
which express the thought, not of the author, but of the sub-
ject of the principal clause.
2. The Genitive sui is regularly employed, like mei and tui, as an
Objective Genitive, e.g. oblitus &vl, forgetful of himself ; but it occa-
sionally occurs — particularly in post- Augustan writers — in place of the
Possessive suus ; as, fruitur fama sui, he eiijoys his own faine.
3. Se and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one''s self one^s
0W71, where the reference is not to any particular person ; as, —
se amare, to love 07ie''s self;
suum genium propitiare, to propitiate one's own genius.
Reciprocal Pro7totms. — Demo7istrative Pronoit7is. 159
4. Suus sometimes occurs in tlie meaning his own, their own, eic.j
referring not to tlie subject but to an oblique case ; as, —
Hannibalem sui cives e civitate ejecerunt, his own fellow-citizens
drove out Hannibal.
a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with
quisque ; as, —
suus quemque error vexat, his own error troubles each.
5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by
the oblique cases of ego and tu (§ 85) ; as, —
vos defenditis, j(?z/{ defend yourselves.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
245. I. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun {^each other'')y
but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases ; inter nos, inter
vos, inter se ; as, —
Belgae obsides inter se dederunt, the Belgae gave each other host-
ages (lit. among themselves^ ;
amamus inter nos, we love each other ;
Gain inter se cohortati sunt, the Gauls exhorted each other,
a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
Hio, Ille, Iste.
246. I. Where hio and ille are used in contrast, hio usually refers
to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former.
2. Hie and ille are often used in the sense of ^ the following'' ; as, —
Themistocles his verbis epistulam misit, Thei7iistocles sent a letter
{couched) in the following words ;
illud intellego, omnium ora in me conversa esse, / understand
this, that the faces of all are turned toward me.
3. Ille often means the famous ; as, Solon ille, the famous Solon.
4. Iste frequently involves contempt ; as, iste hovcio, that fellow!
5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the
gender of a predicate noun ; as, hic est honor, meminisse officium
suum, this is an honor, to be mindfid of one''s duty.
i6o Syntax.
Is.
247. I. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui.
"Thus : —
Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, dilexi, I loved MaximuSy the
man who retook Tare7itu7n.
a. Closel}' akin to this usage is is in the sense of stich ( = talis) ;
as, —
non sum is qui terrear, / ain not such a person as to be
frightened.
b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with
an entire clause ; as, —
non suspicabatur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multos
testes nobis reliquos esse, he did not suspect (a thing
which he will now perceive) that we had witnesses eiiough
left.
Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in
this use.
2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third
person, ' //<?,' '- she,'' ' it,'' ' they,'' ' them.''
3. When the English uses '■that of 'those of to avoid repetition
of the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun ; as, —
in exercitu SuUae et postea in Crassi fuerat, he had been in the
army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crasstis ;
nuUae me fabulae delectant nisi Plauti, no plays delight me except
those of Plautus.
4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense : and that too ; as, —
vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment, and that too per7najtently,
idem.
248. I. idem in apposition with the subject or object often has
the force of also, likewise ; as, —
quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise happened to 7Jte (lit. which,
the sa7ne thing) ;
bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appellamus, a good tnan^ whom
we call also wise.
2. For Idem atque (ac), the sa77te as, see § 341, i, c.
Demonstrative Pronouns. — Relative Pronouns. i6l
Ipse.
249. I. Ipse, literally self, acquires its special force from the con-
text ; as, —
eo ipso die, on that very day ;
ad ipsam ripam, dose to the bank ;
ipso terrore, dy mere fright ;
valvae se ipsae aperuerunt, ///^ doors opened of their ow7i accord]
ipse aderat, he was present in person.
2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of
ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the
reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject ; as, —
secum ipsi loquuntur, they talk with thei7iselves ;
se ipse continere non potest, he cannot contain hi?7tself.
3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of
marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity ; as, —
Persae pertimuerunt ne Alcibiades ab ipsis descisceret et cum
suis in gratiam rediret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades
would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen.
ea molestissime ferre debent homines quae ipsorum culpa con-
tracta sunt, 7nen ought to chafe 77iost over those thi7igs which have
been brought about by their own fault (as opposed to the fault of
others) .
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
250. Agreement, i. The Relative Pronoun agrees with
its antecedent in Gender and Number, but its case is
determined by its construction in the clause in which it
stands; as, —
mulier quam videbamus, the wo77ia7t who77i we saw ;
bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we e7tjoy.
2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for
number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under
similar conditions (see § 235, B, 2). Thus : —
pater et filius, qui capti sunt, the father a7id so7t who were captured ;
stultitia et timiditas quae fugienda sunt, folly a7td cowardice which
77iust be shiumed ;
honores et victoriae quae sunt fortuita, honors and victories which
are accidoital.
M
1 62 Syntax.
3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either
Nominative or Accusative) instead of its antecedent \ as, —
career, quae lautumiae vocantur, the prisoft, which is called Lau-
tiiiniae ;
Celtae, quae est tertia pars, Ihe Cells, who are the third part.
4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the
meaning of its antecedent ; as, —
pars qui bestiis object! sunt, a part {of the 7/ien) who were throw?t
to beasts.
5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its ante-
cedent ; as, —
natus CD patre quo dixi, born of the father that I said.
251. Antecedent. I. The antecedent of the Relative is
sometimes omitted ; as, —
qui naturam sequitur sapiens est, he who follows Nature is wise.
2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or
rarely an adjective) ; as, —
nostra qui remansimus caedes, the slaughter of us who re?nained;
servili tumultu, quos usus ac disciplina sublevarunt, at the up-
rising of the slaves, whom experio.nce and discipline assisted
(servili = servorum).
3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative: as, —
erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two roides, by which
{routes^.
4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The
antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause. Thus : —
a) When the relative clause stands first ; as, —
quam quisque novit artem in hac se exerceat, let each
one practice the bra7icJi which he knows.
b) When the antecedent is an appositive ; as, —
non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitas
est in provincia, they are 7iot far from the borders of
the Tolosates, a state which is in our province.
^) When the logical antecedent is a superlative ; as, —
Themistocles de servis suis, quern habuit fidelissimum
misit, Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had.
Relative Pronouns. — Indefinite Pronouns. 163
(I) In expressions of the type —
qua es prudentia ; quae tua est prudentia, such is your
prtidence (lit, of which prudence you are', which is your
prudence) .
5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus
the boy I saw must be puer quein vidi.
6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning
of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as, —
quo factum est, by this it happened ;
quae cum ita sint, since this is so ;
quibas rebus cognitis, when these thitigs becaitie k?town.
7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong
grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it intro-
duces ; as, —
numquam digne satis laudari philosophia poterit, cui qu3
pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere,
philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her
can pass all his life without annoyance (lit. he who obeys which,
etc.).
Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it
with philosophia ; but cui is governed by pareat, which is subordi-
nate to possit.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
252. I. Quis, a7ty one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands
usually in combination with si, nisi, ne, num ; as, —
SI quis putat, if any one thi?tks.
2. Aliquis (adj. aliqui) is more definite than quis, and corre-
sponds usually to the English some one, so?nebody, some , as, —
nunc aliquis dicat mihi, now let so77tebody tell me ;
utinam modo agatur aliquid, oh that so7nethi7ig 77iay be do7ie.
3. Quidam, a certai7i one, is still more definite than aliquis ; as, — •
homo quidam, a certain 77tan {i.e. 07ie who77t I have i7t 77iind).
a. Quidam (with or without quasi, as tf) is sometimes used in the
sense : a sort of, kind of; as, —
quaedam COg-natio. a sort of relationship;
mors est quasi quaedam mlg-ratio, deatk is a kind of transfer,
as it were.
164 Syntax.
4. Quisquam, any one, any one whoever (more general than quis),
and its corresponding adjective uUus, any, occur mostly in negative
and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a nega-
tive, and in clauses of comparison ; as, —
justitia numquam nocet oyxio^diXQ., justice never har7]is anybody ;
si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit, if a7iybody was ever wise, Cato was ;
potestne quisquam sine perturbatione animi irasci, can anybody
be angry without excitement ?
si uUo modo fieri potest, if it ca7i be done in any way,
taetrior hie tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiorum, he was a
viler tyrant than any of his predecessors.
5. Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circum-
stances : —
«) In connection with suus. See § 244, 4, a,
d) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun;
as,—
quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, what falls to each, that let
him hold.
c) In connection with superlatives ; as, —
optimus quisque, all the best (lit. each best one).
d) With ordinal numerals ; as, —
quints quoque anno, every four years (lit. each fifth year').
6. Nemo, no one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with
adjectives used substantively ; as, —
nemo mortalis, no mortal ;
nemo Romanus. no Roifian.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
253. I. Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correl-
atively; as, —
aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thittg, he thinks another ;
alii resistunt, alii fugiunt, some resist, others flee;
alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit, one ruined the ar7?iy, the
other sold it-,
alteri se in montem receperunt, alteri ad impedimenta se contu-
lerunt, the one party retreated to the 77iou7itai7i, the others betook
the77iselves to the baejo^age.
Agreement of Verb with Subject. 165
2. Where the English says one does one thing, another another, the
Latin uses a more condensed form of statement ; as, —
alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another ;
aliud aliis placet, one thing pleases so7ne, another others.
a. So sometimes with adverbs ; as, —
alii alio fugiunt, some flee in one direction, others in another.
3. The Latin also expresses the notion '■each other "" by means of
alius repeated ; as, —
Gain alius alium cohortati sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other.
4. Ceteri means the rest, all the others ; as, —
ceteris praestare, to be superior to all the others.
5. Reliqui means the others in the sense of the rest, those remain-
ing, — hence is the regular word with numerals ; as, —
reliqui sex, the six others.
6. Nescid quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the
force of sojne one or other ; as, —
causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other ;
misit nescio quem, he sent some one or other ;
nescio quo pacto, somehow or other.
Chapter V. — Syntax of Verbs,
AGREEMENT.
With One Subject.
S
254. I. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite
Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person; as, —
v6s videtis, you see ;
pater filios instituit, the father trains his sons.
2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb
the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender ; as, —
seditio repressa est, the mutiny was checked.
1 66 Syntax.
3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from
its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as, —
Tarquinii materna patria erat, Tarquinii was his ftative country
on his mother'' s side ;
non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, not every error is to be called
folly.
a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as, —
Corioli, oppidum Volscorum, captum est, Corioli, a town of the
Volsci, was captured.
4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb
agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict gram-
matical form. Thus : — ' .
a) In Number; as, —
multitiido hominum convenerant, a crowd of men had
gathered.
b) In Gender; as, —
duo milia crucibus adfi^i sunt, two thousand {77ien^ were
crucified.
"With T-wo or More Subjects.
255. I. Agreement in Number. With two or more sub-
jects the verb is regularly plural ; as, —
pater et filius mortui sunt, the father and son died.
2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject ; viz.^ —
<z) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between
them; as, —
mortuus est pater et filius ;
pater mortuus est et filius.
^) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut . . . aut ;
vel . . . vel ; neque . . . neque ; as, —
neque pater neque filius mortuus est, neither father nor
son died.
3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a
whole, the singular is used ; as, —
temeritas ignoratioque vitiosa est, rashness and ignorance are
bad.
a. This is regularly the case in senatus populusque Romanus.
Voices. — Tenses. 167
4. Agreement in Person. With subjects of dififerent persons
the verb always takes the Jirst person rather than the second, and the
second rather than the third ; as, —
SI tu et TuUia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and Tullia
are well, Cicero and I are well.
5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders
the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as
laid down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.
VOICES.
256. I. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original
middle or reflexive meaning ; as, —
ego non patiar eum defend!, / shall not allow him to defend hi7nself.
2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are
used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as act-
ing not upon himself, but as doing something in his own interest ; as, —
velatus tempora, having veiled his temples,
a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as, —
tunica inducitur artus, he covers his lijjibs with a tunic.
3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive ; as,— -
curritur, people run (lit. it is ru7i) ;
ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. it was come).
TENSES.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
257. I. The Latin tenses express two distinct no
tions : —
a) The period of time to which the action belongs :
Present, Past, or Future.
b) The kirid of action : Undefined, Going on, or
Completed.
The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds
of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine
i68
Syntax.
tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one
way, as may be seen by the following table : —
PERIOD OF TIME.
Present.
Past.
Future.
Undefined.
Present :
Historical Perfect :
Future :
scribo, I write.
scripsi, / wrote.
scribam, / shall
write.
Going on.
Present :
Imperfect :
Future :
scribo, / am
scribebam, /
scribam, /j/^a//
writing.
was writing.
be writing.
Completed.
Present Perfect :
Pluperfect :
Future Perfect :
scripsi, / have
scripseram, /
scripsero, /
written.
had written.
shall have writ-
ten.
2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action
or action Going on ; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a
double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time
(Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical
Perfect).
Principal and Historical Tenses.
258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are
called Principal Tenses ; those which denote Past time
are called Historical.
The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are : Present,
Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.
The Historical Tenses are : Imperfect, Historical Per-
fect, Pluperfect.
Present Indicative.
259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the
Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities : —
I. It is used to denote a general inith, i.e. something true not
merely in the present but at all times (' Gnomic Present ^) ; as, —
virtus conciliat amicitias et conservat, virtue establishes ties of
friendship and maintains them {i.e. always does so).
Te7ises. 169
2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present') ; as, —
dum vitant vitia, in contraria currunt, while they try to avoid
(vltant) vices, they rush into opposite ones.
3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action
(^Historical Present'); as, —
Caesar Aeduis obsides imperat, Caesar demanded hostages of the
Aediii (lit. defnands).
4. In combination with jam, jam diu, jam pridem, and similar
words, tlie Present is frequently used of an action originating in the
past and continuing in the present ; as, —
jam diu cupio te visere, I have long been desiring to visit you (i.e. I
desire and have long desired) .
Imperfect Indicative.
260. I. The Imperfect primarily denotes action going
on in past time ; as, —
librum legebam, I was reading a book.
a^ This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve
as the tense Q){ description (as opposed to mere narration^.
2. From the notion of action going 07t, there easily develops the
notion of repeated or custo7nary action ; as, —
legates interrogabat, he kept asking the envoys;
puer C. Duilium videbam, as a boy I often used to see Gains Duilius.
3. Like the Present, the Imperfect often denotes an attempted
action ('Conative Imperfect') ; as, —
hostes nostros intra munitiones progredi prohibebant, the enemy
tried to preve7it (prohibebant) our men from advancing within
the fortifications .
4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diu, jam dudum, etc., is some-
times used of a past action which had been continuing for some
time ; as, —
domicilium Romae multos jam annos habebat, he had had his
residence at Rotne for jnany years (i.e. he had it at this time
and had long had it) .
i^o Syntax,
Future Indicative.
261. I. The two regular uses of the Future have been given above
In the Table (p. i68).
2. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is
the English. We say : '■If he comes, I shall be glad,'' where we really
mean: ^If he shall come,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the
Present, but generally employs the Future.
3. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dices, say I
Perfect Indicative.
262. A. Present Perfect. Several Present Perfects denote the
State resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the
present; as, —
novi \ I know (lit. I have become acquainted with) ;
cognovi >
consuevi, lam wont (lit. I have become accustomed).
B. Historical Perfect. The Historical Perfect is primarily the
tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of descrip-
Hon); as, —
Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, reddi captives
negavit esse utile, Regulus caine into the Senate, set forth his
com7mssio7iy said it was useless for captives to be returned.
1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth (• Gnomic Per-
fect').
Pluperfect Indicative.
263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Per-
fect, denotes an act completed in the past ; as, —
Caesar Rhenum transTf-e decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar
had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats.
Future Perfect Indicative.
264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in
future time. Thus : —
scribam epistulam, cum redieris, / will write the letter when you
have returned (lit. when you shall have returned).
a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Per-
fect than the English, which commonly employs the Present
Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.
Sequence of Teitses. i/i
Epistolary Tenses.
265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appro-
priate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his
letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for
the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect ; as, —
nihil habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novi quidquam
audieram et ad tuas onines epistulas jam rescripseram, /
have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have
already answered all your letters.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
266. A. In Independent Sentences. See §§ 272-280.
B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the
tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called
Sequence of Tenses.
267. I. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are
Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.
2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are fol-
lowed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus : —
Principal Sequence, —
video quid facias, I see what you are doing.
videbo quid facias, I shall see what you are doing.
videro quid facias, / shall have seen what you are doing,
video quid feceris, I see what you have done.
videbo quid feceris, / shall see what you have dojte.
videro quid feceris, / shall have seen what you have done.
Historical Sequence, —
videbam quid faceres, I saw what you were doing.
vidi quid faceres, I saw what you were doing.
videram quid faceres, I had seen what you were doing.
videbam quid fecisses, I saw what you had done.
vidi quid fecisses, [saw what you had done.
videram quid fecisses, I had seen what you had done.
3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incompleta
action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the
Indicative.
1 72 Syntax.
Peculiarities of Sequence.
268. I. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even
when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by
the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as, —
demonstravl quare ad causam accederem, / have sJioivn why I
took the case (lit. I showed why ^ etc.).
2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense
wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be his-
torical ; as, —
videor ostendisse quales del essent, / seem to have shown of what
nature the gods aj'e (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indic-
ative, ostendi, I showed).
3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal
tense, sometimes as historical. Thus: —
Sulla suos hortatur ut forti animo sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers
to be stout-hearted;
Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take
arms.
4. Conditional sentences of the ' contrary-to-fact ' type are not
affected by the orinciples for the Sequence of Tenses ; as, —
honestum tale est ut vel si ignorarent id homines sua tamen
pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that
eve7i if 7nen were ig7iorant of it, it would still be worthy of
praise for its own lovelitiess.
5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imper-
fect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as, —
SI solos eos diceres miseros, quibus moriendum esset, neminem
tu quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes, if you called 07ily
those wretched who 77121st die, you would except 710 07ie of those
who live.
6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is
sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus: —
rex tantum motus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the
king was so 77iuch 77ioved that he adjudged Tissapher7ies a 11
ene7)iy.
This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and sub-
sequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a
Sequence of Tenses. 173
result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act,
and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct
statement. Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to
a judicavit, he adjudged. To denote a result as somethi?ig cofitinuous,
all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.
7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of
Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus : —
a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an
historical tense ; as, —
Verres Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui non possit,
Verres so ruined Sicily that it can?iot be restored
(Direct statement ; non potest restitui) ;
ardebat Hortensius dicendi cupiditate sic, ut in
nullo flagrantius studium viderim, Hortetisiiis
bur7ied so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no
one a greater desire (Direct statement: in niillo vidi,
/ have seen in no one) .
Note. — This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of
Sequence, the Perfect is used as a principal tense ; there the Perfect was used as an
historical tense,
b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Sub-
junctive used historically; as, —
nescio quid causae fuerit ciir niillas ad me litteras
dares, / do not know what reason there was why you
did not send me a letter.
Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following
Imperfect Subjunctive.
Method of expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.
269. The Future and Future Perfect which are lacking
to the Latin Subjunctive are supplied in subordinate
clauses as follows: —
I . a~) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses,
by the Imperfect after historical tenses.
^) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal
tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.
This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows,
by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the
reference is to future time. Thus : —
174 Syntax.
Galli pollicentur se facturos, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls
promise they will do what Caesar shall order ;
Gain pollicebantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar shotdd order ;
Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls
promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered ;
Galli pollicebantur se facttiros quae Caesar imperavisset, the
Gauls promised they woidd do what Caesar should have ordered.
2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the
main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses
by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus : —
timeo ne veniat, / ain afraid he will coine ;
Caesar exspectabat quid consilii hostes caperent, Caesar was
waiting to see what plan the etiejny would adopt.
3. Where greater definiteness is necessary the periphrastic forms
in -urus sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of
Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin ; as, —
non dubito quin pater venturus sit, / do not doubt that my
father will come ;
non dubitabam quin pater venturus esset, / did not doubt that
my father would come.
4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle or where it
stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by
the use of the particles mox, brevi, statim, etc., in connection with
the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive ; as, —
non dubito quin te mox hiijus rei paeniteat, / do not doubt that
you will soon repent of this thijig ;
non dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, / did not doubt
that this thing woidd soon be finished.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.
270. I. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not
absolutely, but zvith reference to the verb on which they
depend. Thus : —
a^ The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous
with the time of the verb on which it depends ; as, —
videtur honores adsequi, he seems to be gaining honors ;
videbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gainiftg honors .
Tenses of the Infinitive. I75
h) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time
of the verb on which it depends ; as, —
videtur honores adsecutus esse, he seetns to have gained
honors ;
visuB est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed to have
gained honors.
c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that
of the verb on which it depends ; as, —
videtur honores adsecuturus esse,/z^ seems about to gain
honors ;
visus est honores adsecuturus esse, he seemed about to
gain honors.
2. Where the English says ' ought to have done,' ' might have done,'
etc.. the Latin uses debui, oportuit, potui, with the Present Infini-
tive; as, —
debuit dicere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say) ;
oportuit venire, he 07ighi to have co7ne ;
potuit videre, he might have seeft.
a. Oportuit, vol5, n515 (and in poetry some other verbs), may take 1
Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as.—
hoc jam pridem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to
have been done.
3. Periphrastic Future Infinitive. Verbs that have no Par-
ticipial Stem express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore
ut or f uturura esse ut, with the Subjunctive ; as, —
spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, I hope you will repent of your
fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent) ;
spero futurum esse ut hostes arceantur, /hope that the ene77iy will
be kept off.
a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the
Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem ; as, —
spero fore ut hostes vincantur, / hope the enemy will be con-
quered.
4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infini-
tive with fore ; as, —
spero epistulam scriptam fore, / hope the letter will have been
written ;
puts me omnia adeptum fore, / think that I shall have gained
everything.
1 75 Syntax.
THE MOODS.
MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.
The Indicative in Independent Sentences.
271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts y
the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts.
I . Note the following idiomatic uses : —
a) With possum ; as, —
possum multa dicere, / might say 7nuch ;
poteram multa dicere, I might have said much (§ 270, 2).
b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius
est, difficile est, utilius est, and some others ; as, —
longum est ea dicere, it wouid be tedious to tell that ;
difficile est omnia persequi, it would be difficult to enu-
merate everything.
The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.
272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences
to express something —
1 . As willed — Volitive Subjunctive ;
2. As desired — Optative Subjunctive;
3. Conceived of as possible — Potential Subjunctive.
VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273. The VoHtive Subjunctive represents the action as
willed. It always implies authority on the part of the
speaker, and has the following varieties : —
A. Hortatory Subjunctive.
274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhor-
tation. This use is confined to the first person plural,
of the Present. The negative is ne. Thus : —
eamus, let us go \
amemus patriam, let us love our country ;
ne desperemus, let us not despair.
The Volitive Subjunctive. 177
B. Jussive Subjunctive.
275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command.
The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and
is used —
1 . Most frequently in the third singular and third plural ; as, —
dicat, let Jiijn tell ;
dicant, let them tell y
impii ne placare audeant deos, let not the 'wicked dare to appease
the gods.
2. Less frequently in the second person ; as, —
isto bono utare, 2ise that advantage ;
modeste vivas, live temperately.
C. Prohibitive Subjunctive.
276. The Subjunctive is used in the second person sin-
gular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibition. As
regards the use of tenses, the Perfect seems to be used
where there is special excitement or emotion^ otherwise the
Present ; as, —
ne repugnetis, do not resist !
tu vero istam ne reliqueris, don't you leave her !
a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.
b. The distinction sometimes drawn between the Present and the Perfect
in this construction, restricting the former to general prohibitions, and
the latter to those addressed to a definite second person, will not hold.
c. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition is by the
use of noli (nolite) with a following infinitive, or by
cave ne with the Subjunctive ; as, —
noli hoc facere, don't do this (lit. be unwilling to do) !
nolite mentiri, do not lie!
cave ne haec facias, do not do this (lit. take care lest
you do).
D. Deliberative Subjunctive.
277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions
and excla^nations implying doubt or indignation. The
1^8 Syntax.
Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect
referring to past. The negative is non. Thus : —
quid f aciam, lu/iat shall I do ?
ego redeam, sJiall I go back ?
quid facerem, what was T to do?
hunc ego non diligam, shall I not cherish this 7nan f
a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in char«
acter, and do not expect an answer.
E. Concessive Subjunctive.
278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as
granted or conceded for the sake of argnment. The Present
is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past.
The negative is ne. Thus : —
sit hoc verum, granting that this is true (lit. let this be true) ;
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granting that pain
is not the greatest evil., yet it is certainly an evil-,
fuerit malus civis aliis, tibi quando esse coepit, granting that he
was a bad citizen to others., when did he begin to be so toward you ?
. OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of
wishing. The negative is regularly ne. The use of tenses
is as follows : —
1 . The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where
the wish is conceived of as possible.
^1 istaeo prohibeant, may the gods prevent that I
f alsus utinam vates sim, oh that I may be a false prophet I
ne veniant, 7nay they not come !
2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that
something is 7iot so now ; the Pluperfect that something was not so in
tJie past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by
utinam ; as, —
utinam istud ex animo diceres, woidd that you were saying that in
earnest., (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest) ;
Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arcus, would that Achilles had
escaped the bow of Apollo ;
utinam ne natus essem, would that I had not been born-
The Potential Subjunctive. 179
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE,.
280. The Potential Subjuactive QxpxtssQS a possibility.
The negative is non. The following uses are to be noted : —
1. The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere objective possi-
bility (English auxiliary 7;iay). Both Present and Perfect occur, and
without appreciable difference of meaning. The subject is generally
an indefinite pronoun. Thus : —
dlcat aliquis, so?ne one may say ;
dixerit aliquis, some one iiiay say.
a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined
mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.
2. The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as contingent
upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should^
would). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable
difference of meaning. Thus : —
fortiinani citius reperias quani retineas, one would more qiiickly Jind
Fortune than keep it {i.e. if one should make the trial) ;
paene dicam, I should almost say (i.e. if I were to express an opinion) ;
crediderim, / should believe.
a. Here belongs the use of velim, malim, nolim, as softened
forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus : —
velim mihi ignoscas, I wish you would forgive me\
nolim putes me jocari, / dont want you to think fm
joking.
b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular
types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303) ; as, —
dies deficiat, si coner enumerare causas, time would
fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reaso?is.
3. In the Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singu-
lar (with indefinite force ; § 356, 3) of a few verbs, chiefly the following : —
crederes, one might have believed •,
videres, cerneres, one might have seejt, perceived;
putares, one might have thought.
4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional
sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) ctre also Potential in
character. By omission of the Protasis such an Apodosis sometimes
stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem, mallem ; as, —
vellem id quidem, / would wish that {i.e. were I bold
enough) .
i8o Syntax.
The Imperative.
281. The Imperative is used in commandsy admonitions^
and entreaties (negative ne) ; as, —
egredere ex urbe, depart fro?n the city ;
mihi ignosce, pardon me ;
^r die, farewell.
1. The Present is the tense of the hnperative most commonly used,
but the Future is employed —
«) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially
in the apodosis of conditional sentences ; as, —
rem vobis proponam ; vos earn penditote, I will lay the
7natter before you ; do you {tJteii) consider it ;
81 bene disputabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if he shall
speak well, attribute it to Greek literature.
b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc. ; as, —
consules summum jus habento, the consuls shall have
siipreme power ;
hominem mortuomi in urbe ne sepelito, no one shall bury
a dead body in the city ;
amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo RomanS his legi-
bus et condicionibus esto, let there be peace between
Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms
and conditions.
quartae esto partis Marcus heres, let Marcus be heir to
a fourth {of the property) ;
ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam tibi, forgive your neigh-
bor often, yourself never.
2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in
classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways.
See § 276, c.
3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin {why 7tot?) are
often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive ; as, —
quin abis, go away ! (lit. why don'' t you go a%vay /)
quin vocem continetis, keep still ! (lit. why donH you stop your
voices .?)
quin equos conscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we
not mount our horses f)
Clauses of Purpose. i8i
MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Clauses of Purpose.
282. I. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most com-
monly by ut (uti), quo {that, in order that), ne {in order that
not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive ; as, —
edimus, ut vivamus, we eat that we may live.
adjuta me quo hoc fiat facilius, help me, in order that this may be
done 7nore easily.
portas clausit, ne quam oppidani injuriam acciperent, he closed
the gates, lest the towjispeople should receive any inJ7iry.
a. Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause
contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional
exceptions occur ; as, —
haec faciunt quo Chremetem absterreant, they are doing
this in order to frighten Chr ernes.
b. Ut ne is sometimes found, as more emphatic than ne.
Thus : —
ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, in order that we may not
do anything carelessly.
c. Ut non (not ne) is used where the negation belongs to some
single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole.
Thus : —
ut non ejeotus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos vide-
are, that you may seem 7tot driveit out among stratigers,
but invited to your own friends.
d. To say ^ and that not ' or ' or that not,^ the Latin regularly
uses neve (neu) ; as, —
ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent,
that the violence of these things might be lessened, and
that they might not harm the bridge ;
profugit, ne caperetur neve interficeretur, he fled, that he
might not be captured or killed.
e. But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in the second clause when
ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first
clause is introduced by ne.
^^82 Syntax.
2. A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quo) is fre-
•quently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as, —
Helvetii legates mittunt, qui dicerent, the Helvetii se7it envoys to
say (lit. ivlio should say^ ;
haec habui, de senectute quae dicerem, / had these things to say
about old age ;
non habebat quo fugeret, he had jio place to which to flee (lit. whither
he might flee) .
a. Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut eg-Q, etc.; ubi to ut
ibi ; unde to ut inde ; quo to ut eo.
3. Relative clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and ido-
iieus ; as, —
idoueus fuit nem5 quern imitarere, tJiere was no one suitable for
you to i)nitate {cf. nemo fuit quein imitarere, tJiere was no
one to imitate^ ;
dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime.
4. Purpose clauses often depend upon something to be supplied
from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sen-
tences ; as, —
ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this (/ will say
that) we depaj'ted.
Clauses of Characteristic.
283. I. A relative clause used to express an essential
quality or characteristic of an antecedent not otherwise de-
fined is called a Clause of Characteristic, and stands in
the Subjunctive ; as, —
multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, there are many things which
sharpen the wits.
Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which
are used merely to state or assume some fact about an antecedent
already defined, and which therefore take the Indicative; as, —
Cato, senex jucundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, Cato, a delight-
ful old ma7i, who was called '■The Wise."^
The Clause of Characteristic implies '■ a man of the sort that does some-
thing''; the Indicative relative clause implies '■a man who actually
does something.''
Clauses of Characteristic. 183
2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions
as, est qui ; sunt qui ; nemo est qui ; nullus est qui ; unus est
qui ; solus est qui ; quis est qui ; is qui ; etc. Thus : —
sunt qui dioant, there are {some) who say ;
nemo est qui putet, there is nobody who thinks ;
sapientia est. una quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only
thing that drives away sorrow ;
quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that
cannot be overthrown ?
non is sum qui improbos laudem, / am not the sort of man that
praises the wicked.
a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteris-
tic is used after comparatives ; as, —
non long-ius hostes aberant quam quo telum adigi posset,
the efieviy were not too far off for a dart to reach them {\\\. further
off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast).
3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion
of cause {since) or opposition {although). Thus : —
a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut,
quippe, utpote ; as, —
6 fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum
praeconem inveneris, O fortunate jnajt, since you
have found a Hoiner as the herald of your valor ;
ut qui Optimo jure eam provinciam obtinuerit, since
he held that province by excellent right.
b) Opposition : —
egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen
complures dies Athenis commoratus sum, /, al-
though I had taken up Greek literature late in life,
nevertheless tarried several days at Athens.
4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quin = qui
(quae, quod) non; as, —
nemo est quin saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often
heard ;
nemo fuit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers
who was not wounded.
5 . Under Clauses of Characteristic belong also phrases of the type :
quod sciam, so far as I know ; quod audierim, so far as I have
heard.
1 84 Syntax.
Clauses of Result.
284. I. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut
{that, so that), negative ut non {so that not), and take the
Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, talis,
tot, is ( = talis), tam, or some similar word. Thus : —
quis tam demens est ut sua voluntate maereat, who is so senseless
as to 7nour)i of his own volition f
Sicilian! ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum non possit,
he has so ravaged Sicily that it ca?mot be restored to its former
condition ;
mons altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere pos-
sent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could
easily stop them.
2. A Resuh Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or
Adverb, qui ( = ut is), quo ( = ut eo), etc. ; as, —
nemo est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere, nobody
is so old as not to think he will live a year ;
habetis eum consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet,
you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.
a. These relative clauses of result are a development of the Clause of
Characteristic, and sometimes it is difificult to distinguish the two con-
structions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic,
unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.
3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quTn = ut non ; as, —
nihil tam difficile est quin quaerendo investigari possit, nothing
is so difficidt that it cajinot be discovered by searching.
nemo est tam fortis quin rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so
steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange
occurrence.
Note phrases of the type : —
fieri non potest quin _scribam, | ^^^^^^^^ avoid writing
facere non possum quin scribam, J
4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone; to denote Result
after comparatives ; aJ,,—
urbs erat mtinitior quam ut primo impetu capi posset, the city was too
strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. 7nore strongly fortified,
than [jc?] that it could be taken ^ etc.)*
Causal Clauses. 185
Causal Clauses.
285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the fol-
lowing particles : —
1 . Quod, quia, quoniam.
2. Cum.
3. Quando.
286. The use of moods is as follows : —
I. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the
reason is tJiat of the zvritei' or speaker ; they take the Sub-
junctive when the reason is viewed as that of another.
Thus : —
Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear the Parthians,
because I distrust our troops.
Themistocles, quia non tiitus erat, Corcyram demigravit, The-
jm'stocles, since he was not safe^ inoved to Corcyra.
neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam bene vixi, / do not regret
having livedo since / have lived well.
Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventiitem, Socrates
was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young.
(Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser.
Hence the Subjunctive.)
Aedui Caesari gratias egerunt, quod se periculo liberavisset,
the Aedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from
danger. (The reason of the Aedui.)
quoniam Miltiades dicere non posset, verba pro eo fecit Ti-
sagoras, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for
him. (The reason of Tisagoras.)
noctii ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere non pos-
set, Themistocles used to walk at night because (^as he said) he
couldnH sleep.
a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunc-
tive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or say-
ing, and not the contents of the thought or language, con-
stituted the reason. Thus : —
Bellovaci suum numerum non compleverunt, quod se
suo nomine cum Romanis bellum gestiiros dice-
rent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their co?nplement, be-
1 86 Syntax.
cause they said they were going to wage war with the
Romans on their own account.
b Non quod, non quo (by attraction for non eo quod), non
quia, not that, not because-, and non quod non, non quo
non, non quin, not that . . . not-, not because . . . not',
, not but what, are usually employed merely to introduce a
hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive ; as, —
id feci, non quod vos hano defensionem desiderare
arbitrarer, sed ut omnes intellegerent, this I did,
not because I thought you 7ieeded this defense, but that all
might perceive ;
Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin
earn valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi
commendatione non videbatur, / did not promise a
recommendatio7i to Crassus, not that I did not think it
would have weight with you, but because he did not see7n
to me to need recominendation.
c. But clauses introduced by non quod, non quia take the
Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied
to be the reason for something ; as, —
hoc ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic
existimare nos est necesse, this I think, not because 1
a7n 77iyself a7i augur {which I really a77i), but because it
is 7iecessary for 7(s to thi7ik so.
2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as, —
quae cum ita sint, si7ice this is so;
cum sis mortalis, quae mortalia sunt, ciira, si7ice you are mortal,
care for what is 7Jiortal.
a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum),
especially si7tce ; as, —
Aeduos accusat, praesertim cum eorum precibus ad-
ductus bellum susceperit, he blamed the Aedui,
especially si7ice he had undertake7t the war at their
e7itreaties.
3. Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs
the Indicative ; as, —
id omitto, quando vobis ita placet, / pass over that, si7ice you so
wish.
Clauses with Postquam, Ubi, etc. 1 8/
Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi,
Simul ac, etc.
287. I. Postquam (posteaquam), after; ut, ubi, when;
cum primum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when
used to refer to a single occiLrrence regularly take the Per-
fect Indicative ; as, —
Epaminondas postquam audivit vicisse Boeotios, '■ Satis ' inquit
' vixi,' Epa7nino7idas, after he heard that the Boeotians had con-
quered, said, ^ I have lived enough?
id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he moved
to Corey r a ;
Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as
soon as he could, hiirried to the army ;
ubi de Caesaris adventu certiores facti sunt, legates ad eum
mittunt, when they were ii formed of Caesar'' s arrival, they sent
envoys to him.
a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this con-
struction.
2. To denote the repeated occurrejice of an act, ut, ubi, simul
atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Plu-
perfect Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3 ; 302, 3); as, —
ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coni-
ciebatur, whenever anybody had offended Verres''s feelings, he
was forthwith put iii the stone-qtiarry ;
hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur,
whenever the ene^ny had seen any men disembarking, they
attacked them.
a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub-
junctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act (' Indefi-
nite Frequency') ; as, —
id ubi dixisset, hastam mittebat, whenever he had said that, he
hurled a spear.
3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluper-
fect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with
postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days,
months, years, etc.^, such as post tertium annum quam, tribus post
annis quam. Thus : —
1 88 Syntax.
paucls post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniam venit,
a few days after he had departed from Luca he ca7ne to Sar-
dijiia ;
postquam occupatae Syracusae erant, profectus est Cartha-
ginem, after Syracuse had been seized^ he set out for Carthage.
4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs to denote a continued
state; as, —
postquam Romam adventabant, senatus consultus est, after they were
oti the march toivards Rome, the Senate was consulted ;
postquam struct! utrimque stabant, after they had been drawn up on both
sides and were in position.
5. Rarely postquam, posteaquam., following the analogy of cum, take
the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses ; as, —
posteaquam samptuosa fieri funera coepissent, lege sublata sunt,
after funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum..
A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.
288. I. Cum, when referring to the past, takes —
A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or
Pluperfect) to denote tJie point of thne at which something
occurs.
B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote
the situation or circumstances under which something
occurs.
Examples : —
Indicatfv^e.
an tum eras consul, cum in Palatio mea domus ardebat, or were
you cotisiil at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine ?
credo tum cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis magna artificia
fuisse in ea insula, / believe that at the time when Sicily was
powerful iti riches and resources there were great crafts in that
island]
eo tempore paruit cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time
when it was necessary to obey ;
illo die, cum est lata lex de me, on that day when the law concern-
ing me was passed.
CvLxn-Clauses. 1 89
Subjunctive.
Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus est,
when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lyciirgus, he was
Prevoited ',
Pythagoras cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis
bovem immolasse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered
something new in geometry^ he is said to have sacrificed an ox to
the Muses.
a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses
than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases
where the main clause has tum, eo die, eo anno, eo tem-
pore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it
depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether
he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.
2. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum
with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when,
when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix,
aegre, nondum ; as, —
jam Gain ex oppido fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae
repente procurrerunt, the Gaiils were already preparing to
fiee, when sicddenly the jnatrons rushed forth (logically, the i7ia-
trons rushed forth as the Gaids were preparing to flee) ;
Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse
cognoscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when {sud-
denly) they learned that two legions had arrived.
3. To denote a rectirring action in the past cum is followed by the In-
dicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2 ; 302, 3); as, —
cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum
deferebatur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was
{always) carried in the same litter to his room ;
cum equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis
emittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields,
he would send his charioteers out from the woods.
a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used ; as,—
saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum
amiculum dedit, often, whenever he saw some one more poorly
clothed, he gave him his oion mantle ;
cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, as often as they
had advanced, the Numidians ran away.
This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.
iQO Syntax.
B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.
289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regu-
larly takes the Indicative ; as, —
tum tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet, your own interests
are at stake when your neighbor's house is buriiing;
cum videbis, tum scies, when you see, then you will know.
a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring
action; as, —
stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest, cum homines cu-
pidinibus imperabunt, firm fnejidslup ca^i be established
wkenever men shall control their desires.
C. Other Uses of Cum.
290. I. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is some-
times used to indicate tlie identity of one act with another ; as, —
cum tacent, clamant, their silence is a shout (ht. when they are
silent, they shout) .
2. Cum . . . tum. When cum . . . tum mean both . . . and,
the cum-clause is in the Indicative ; but when cum has the force of
while, though, it may take the Subjunctive ; as,—
cum te semper dilexerim, tum tuis factis incensus sum, while I
have always loved you, at the same time I- am incensed at
your conduct.
Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusqnam.
A. With the Indicative.
291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante . . .
quam, prius . . . quam) take the Indicative to denote an
actual fact.
1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect ; as, —
prius respondes quam rogo, /<?// answer before F ask',
nihil contra disputabo priusquam dixerit, / will say nothing in
opposition, before he speaks.
2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses ; as, —
non prius jugulandi finis fuit, quam Sulla omnes suos divitils
explevit, there was no end of 7nurder until Sulla satisfied all
his henchnen with wealth.
Clauses with Dum, Donee, etc. 19 1
B. With the Subjunctive.
292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to
denote an act as anticipated.
1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote —
a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place ; as, —
priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum est, i.e. in anticipa-
tion of the fight ^ a treaty was struck.
By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of general
truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out ; as, —
tempestas minatur antequam surg-at, the tempest threateyis before it rises.
b) An act anticipated and forestalled ; as, —
priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit,
before a spear could be hurled., the whole aryny fled.
c) An act anticipated and deprecated ; as, —
animum omittunt priusquam loco demigrent, they die
rather than qnit their post.
2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, espe-
cially by post-Augustan writers, where the notion of anticipation has
practically vanished ; as, —
sol antequam se abderet fugientem vidit Antonium, the sun before
it set saw Antony fleeing.
Clauses introduced by Dum, Donee, Quoad.
293. I, Dum, while, regularly takes the Indicative of
the Historical Present; as, —
Alexander, dum inter primores pugnat, sagitta ictus est, Alex-
ander, while he was fighti?ig in the van, was struck by an arrow,
dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum pervenit, while these
things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Vejielli.
II. Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as, take the Indica-
tive ; as, —
dum anima est, spes est, as lo7ig as there is life, there is hope ;
Lacedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant,
the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws
of Lycurgus were in force ;
Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit, Cato, as long as he lived,
increased in the fame of his virtues.
ig2 Syntax.
III. Dum, donee, and quoad, zmtil, take: — »
1. The Indicative, to denote ait actiLal event ; as,- -
donee rediit, f uit silentium, there was silence till he came ;
ferrum in eorpore retinuit, quoad renuntiatum est Boeotios
vieisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that
the Boeotians had conquered.
a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and donee in this sense often
take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as, —
trepidatidnis aliquantuna edebant, donee timer quietenii
fecisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet,
2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expec-
tancy; as, —
exspeetavit Caesar dum naves convenirent, Caesar waited for the
ships to assemble ;
dum hostes veniant, morabor, /shall wait for the etiefny to come.
Substantive Clauses.
294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole
serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or denotes
some other case relation.
A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.
295. These are generally used as object-clauses, and
occur with the following classes of verbs : —
I . With verbs signifying to admonish., request, coininand, urge, per-
suade, induce^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne) ; as, —
postulo ut fiat, / dejnand that it be done (dependent form of the
Jussive fiat, let it be do7ie!) ;
orat, ne abeas, he begs that you will not go away,
milites eohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, he ex-
horted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy ;
Helvetils persuasit ut exirent, he persuaded the Helvetii to inarch
forth.
a. Jube5, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.
1 Especially: moneo, admoneo ; rogo, oro, pet5, postulo, precor,
flagito; mando, impero, praecipio ; suadeo, hortor, coliortor; per-
suaded, impello.
Substantive Clauses. 193
2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow^^ etc. (con-
junction ut) ; as, —
huic concedo ut ea praetereat, / allow him to pass that by (depend-
ent form of tlie Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass t/tat by!) ;
consul! permissum est ut duas legiones scriberet, the consul was
permitted to enroll two legions.
3. With verbs of hinderi7tg, preventing^^ etc. (conjunctions ne,
quominus, quin) ; as, —
ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented hint from
finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of ne
lustrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.) ;
|Drohibuit quominus in unum coirent, he prevented them from com-
ing together ;
nee, quin erumperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could he be prevented
from rushing forth.
a. Quin is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a
negative, or stands in a question implying a negative ; it is not neces-
sarily used even then.
Clauses introduced by quominus and quin are probably devel-
oped from Purpose Clauses.
4. With verbs of deciding, resolving^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne) ;
as,—
constitueram ut pridie Idus Aquini manerem, / had decided to
remain at Aquinum on the 12th;
decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opi-
mius should see to it ;
oonvenit ut unis oastrTs miscerentur, // was agreed that they should
be united in one camp.
5. With verbs oi striving,'' etc. (conjunctions ut, ne) ; as, —
laborabat ut reliquas civitates adjungeret, he was striving to join
the reinaining states to him ;
contendit ne ea enuntiarentur, he strove that those things should not
be reported.
a. Conor, try, always takes the Infinitive.
Note. — Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially
in poetry.
1 Especially: permittS, concedo, non patior,
2 Especially : prohibeo, impediS, deterred.
3 Especially : constituo, decerno, censeo, placuit, convenit, pa-
ciscor.
4 Especially: laboro, do operam, id ag3, contend©, impetro.
194 Syntax.
6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquum
est, sequitur, licet, oportet ; as, —
reliquum est ut doceam, it remains for me to show ;
licet ledie^s, you may reticrn ;
oportet loquamur, we must speak.
On licet and oportet without ut, see paragraph 8.
7. Here also belong phrases of the type : niilla causa est cur,
quare, quin ; non est cur, etc.] nihil est ciir, etc. ; as, —
nulla causa est cur timeam, t/iere is 710 reason why I should fear
(originally Deliberative : why should I fear? There'' s no reason) ;
non est quare timeam, ^he?-e is no reason why I should fear ;
nihil est quin die am, there is no reason why /should 7wt say.
8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Sub-
junctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omis-
sion of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed
before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse
est, licet, and oportet ; see 6. Other examples are : —
eos hoc moneo desinant, / warji them to stop ;
huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to visit the states.
B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.
296. Here belong clauses : —
1. With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupio, opto, volo,
malo (conjunctions ut, ne); as, —
opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiatur, / hope that in
this court no bad man 7nay be foimd (here ut reperiatur repre-
sents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur, jnay
710 bad 77ia7i be foundl) ;
cupio ne veniat, I desire that he 7nay 7iot co7ne.
a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this
class. (See \ 295, 8.) Examples are : vellem scriberes, / could wish
you were writing ; vellem scripsisset, I could wish he had written.
2. With verbs of /^^r/;^^ (timeo, metuo, vere or). Here ne means
that, lest, and ut means that 7iot ; as, —
timeo ne veniat, I fear that he will come (originally : 7nay he not come I
P771 afraid [he will^) ;
timeo ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally : may he come.
Pm afraid \he wo7i't'\ ) .
Substantive Clauses. 195
Ne non sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of
fearuig has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some
particular word in the dependent clause; as, —
non vereor ne hoc non fiat, / am not afraid that this will not
happe/i ;
vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non i>ossit. / /ear that
he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army.
C. Substantive Clauses of Result.
297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut,
ut non) are a development of pure Result clauses, and
occur with the following classes of words : —
1 . As object clauses after verbs of doing, acconiplishijig (especially
facio, efficio, conficio). Thus : —
gravitas morbi facit ut niedicma e^edLXOMs, the severity of disease
7nakes 21s Jieed medicine.
2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, effici-
tur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur,
relinquitur. Thus : —
ex quo efJicitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonum,yr^w which
it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good-,
ita fit, ut nemo esse possit beatus, thns it happeiis that no one can
be happy ;
accedebat ut naves deessent, another thing was the lack of ships
(lit. it was added that ships were lacking^.
3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est, mos
est, consuetudo est ; also after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc.
Thus : —
est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere,
it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in
majiy things.
D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quin.
298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quln (used some-
times as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative
and interrogative expressions of dotcbt, omission^ and the
like, particularly after non dubito, / do not doubt ; quia
196 Syntax.
dubitat, wJio doiibts? ; non (haud) dubium est, there is no
doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples: —
quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae siiit , who doubts that in virtue
there are riches ?
non dubium erat quin venturus esset, there was ?io doubt that he
was about to come.
a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes
takes the place of the quin-clause after non dubito ; as, —
non dubitamus inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were found.
b. Non dubito, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive,
though sometimes by a quin-clause.
JE7. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quod.
299. I. Quod, tJie fact that, that, introduces Substan-
tive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs
especially —
a') In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id,
illud, ilia, ex eo, inde, etc. Thus : —
illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinen •
dos censuit, this is especially worthy of admiratio7t,
that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept ;
hoc uno praestamus vel maxime feris, quod coUoqui-
mur inter nos, i?i this one respect are we especially
superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other.
b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere,
etc. ; as —
^ bene mihi accidit, quod niittor ad mortem, it is well for
me that I am sent to death ;
bene fecisti quod mansisti, yoit did well in remaining.
2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force
of as regards the fact that. Thus : —
quod multitudinem Germanorum in Galliam tradiico, id mei
muniendi causa facio, as regards the fact that I am trans-
porting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for
the sake of strengtheni^ig myself',
quod me Agamemnona aemulari putas, falleris, as regards your
thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistake?t.
Substantive Clauses. 197
Indirect Questions.
300. I. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used
after verbs of askijig, ijiquU^mg, telling and the like. They
take their verb in the Subjunctive.^ Like Direct Questions
(see § 162) they may be introduced —
d) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs ; as, —
die mihi ubi fueris, quid feceris, tell 7ne where you were,
what you did ;
oculis judicari non potest in utram partem fluat Arar,
it cayinot be determined by the eye in which directioji the
Arar flows ;
bis bina quot essent, nesciebat, he did not know how
many two tiiJies two were.
Note. — Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from
Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in
the following : —
effugere nemo id potest quod futiirum est, no one can escape what
is destined to come to pass ; but
saepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but often
it is 7iot even iiseful to know what is coming to pass.
b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning ; as, —
Epaminondas quaesivit num salvus esset clipeus, or
salvusne esset clipeus, lipaminondas asked whether
his shield was safe ;
disputatur num interire virtus in homine possit, the
question is raised whether virtue can die iii a man ;
ex Socrate quaesibum est nonne Archelaum beatum
putaret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he
did not think Archelaus happy.
Note. — N5nne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaero, as in the
last example above.
2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive
of the direct discourse ; as, —
nescio quid f aciam, / do not know what to do. (Direct : quid f aciam,
what shall I do ,')
1 Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as c6n-
sidera quam variae sint hominum cupidines, consider how varied are the
desires of men. ( Direct : quam variae sunt hominum cupidines !)
198 Syntax.
3. After verbs of expectation and ejideavor (exspecto, conor,
experior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question intro-
duced by SI ; as, —
conantur si perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break
through.
a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted ; as, —
pergit ad proximam speluncam si forte eo vestigia fer-
rent, he proceeded to the nearest cave {to see) if the tracks led
thither.
4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the
same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4) ; viz. : —
utrum . . . an ;
-ne an ;
an
Examples : —
quaero utrum verum an falsum sit,
quaero verumne an falsum sit,
quaero verum an falsuin sit,
quaero verum falsumne sit.
- /ask whether it is true or false?
a. 'Or not' in the second member of a double question is ordinarily
expressed by necne, less frequently by an non ; as, —
di utrum sint necne, quaeritur, it is asked whether there are gods
or not.
5. Hand scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first member of
the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense : / am
inclined to think., probably., perhaps ; as, —
hand scio an hoc verum sit, /am inclined to think this is true.
6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in
Indirect Questions.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences
(§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or coii-
ditiofi), usually introduced by si, nisi, or sin, and the
Apodosis (or conclnsion\ We distinguish the following
types of Conditional Sentences : —
Conditional Sentences. 199
First Type. — Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the
Supposed Case.
302. I. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both
Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used ; as, —
si hoc credis, erras, if yoii believe this, you are mistaken;
naturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow
Nature, we shall never go astray ;
SI hoc dixisti, errasti, zf you said this, you were in error.
2. Sometimes the Protasis takes tlie Indefinite Second Person Singu-
lar (§ 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of
the Indicative ; as, —
memoria minuitur, nisi earn exerceas, 7nemory grows weak unless
you exercise it.
3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Prot-
asis denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2 ; 288, 3); as, —
81 quis equitum deciderat, pedites circumsistebant, if any one
of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him.
a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the
Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated
action ; as, —
si dicendo quis diem eximeret, if {ever) anybody consumed a day
in pleading ; SI quando adsideret, if ever he sat by.
4. Where the sense demands it the Apodosis in conditional sen-
tences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Inde-
pendent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.') ; as, —
SI hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent;
SI hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep silent.
Second Type. — Supposed Case represented as Contingent.
303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Pres-
ent or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as, —
si hoc dicas, erres, ] if you should say this, you would be mis-
si hoc dixeris, erraveris, J taken.
SI velim Hannibalis proelia omnia describere, dies me deficiat,
if I should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time
would fail me ;
200 Syntax.
mentiar, sT negem, / should lie, if I should deny it ;
haec SI tecum patria loqtiatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your
country should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to
obtain her request f
a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type
is of the Potential variety.
b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in th Apodosis of sentences of the
Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the consummation of a
result more positively ; as, —
aliter si faciat, nullam habet auctoritatem, if he should do
otherwise, he has no authority.
Third Type. — Supposed Case represented as Contrary to
Fact.
304. I. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both
Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present
time, and the Pluperfect referring to past ; as, —
Si amici mei adessent, opis non indigerem, if my friends were
here, I should not lack assistance ; ' I j
si hoc dixisses, errasses, if you had said this, yoji would have
erred ;
sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, philosophy would not
be desired, if it accomplished nothing;
consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum
consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless de-
liberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ances-
tors would not have called their highest deliberative body a
senate.
2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the
past, especially to denote a continued act, or a state of things still
^.yivfimr: 3 =
iiaeiius, runue, oato, eT nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam £§
ad earum studium contulissent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato
would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters,
unless they had been {constantly^ helped by them ;
num igitur si ad centesimum annum vixisset, senectutis eum
suae paeniteret, if he had lived to his hundredth year,
would he have regretted {and now be regretting) his old
Conditional Sentences. 20I
3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes
stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz. —
a) Frequently in expressions of ability^ obligation^ or neces-
sity, as, —
nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum
potuerunt, unless their prosperity had turfied to folly,
they could have thrown off the yoke ;
Note. — In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is repre-
sented as contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context.
Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood
{^CLud they would have shaken it off). When the possibility itself is conditioned, the
Subjunctive is used.
eum patris loco oolere debebas, si ulla in te pietas
esset, yo2i ought to revere him as a father, if you had
any sense of devotion.
b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations ; as, —
si Pompejus occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri, if
Poinpey had been slain, would you have proceeded to
arms ?
Bi unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus
fuit, if you had delayed one day, you would all have
had to die.
Protasis expressed -withoat Si.
305. I . The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si,
but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context ; as, —
alioqui haec non scriberentur, otherwise {i.e. if matters were other-
wise) these things would not be written ;
non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigentes, retinere virtiitem, you
cannot retain virtue .^ if you direct everything with reference to
pleasure.
2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive serves as
Protasis. Thus: —
eras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you (lit
ask to-morrow, etc.) ;
haec reputent, videbunt, if they consider this, they will see (lit. let
them consider, etc.)\
cave haec facias, beware not to do this ! (Originally : do this ! then
beware I i.e. if you do it, beware I Hence beware not to do it!)
202 Syntax.
Use of Nisi, SI Non, Sin.
306. I. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; si non nega-
tives a single word ; as, —
ferreus essem, nisi te amarem, / should be hard-hearted unless 1
loved you', but —
ferreus essem, si te non amarem, / should be hard-hearted if I did
NOT love you.
In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived,
In the second, the notion of loving.
2. Si non (si minus) must be employed : —
^) When an apodosis with at, tamen, cert§ follows ; as, —
dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen ocoultabo, if
I cannot crush viy sorrow, yet I will hide it.
b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form ;
as,—
si feceris, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feoeris^
ignoscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you
do not do it, I shall pardo7i you.
a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus is admis-
sible; as, —
hoc si assecutus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me consolor, ///
have attained this, I am glad ; if not, I console myself.
3. Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in
meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin ; as, —
hunc mihi timorem eripe ; si verus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus,
ut timere desinam, relieve me of this fear ; if it is well
foimded, that I may not be destroyed', but if it is groundless,
that / may cease to fear.
4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (non, nemo,
nihil) ; as, —
nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, he had no thought but 7mirder.
a. Non and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.
5. Nisi forte, nisi vero, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed
(often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as, —
nisi vero, quia peifecta res non est, non videtur punienda, tin-
less indeed, becaitse aji act is ?iot constuntiiated, it does not seetn
to 7nerit punisJinient.
Clauses of Compai'ison. — Adversative Clauses. 203
Conditional Clauses of Comparison,
307. I. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro-
duced by the particles, ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tamquam
SI, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam. They are fol-
lowed by the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an
ellipsis, as indicated in the. following examples: —
tantus patres metus cepit, velut si jam ad portas hostis esset, as
great fear seized the senators as {would have seized theiii) if the
ejiemy were already at the gates ;
sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi res dubia aut obscura sit,
dut why do I use these witnesses, as (/ should do) if the matter
were doubtful or obscure ;
serviam tibi tamquam si emeris me argento, / will serve you as
though y 01 1 had bought me for money.
2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regu-
lar principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses
the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third exam-
ples), where the English uses the Past and the Past Perfect.
Concessive Clauses.
308. The term ' Concessive ' is best restricted to those
clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which
have the force oi granted that, etc. (see § 278); as,—
Git fur, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperator, granted that he is a
thief and a robber, yet he is a good cofnmatider ;
at hoc verum sit, granted that this is true ;
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granted that pain
is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil.
a. Here also belongs the use of the Subjunctive with licet (see \ 295, 6),
where licet has the force oi he may, they may, etc. ; as, —
fremant omnes licet, dicam quod sentio, they may all shout,
{but) I shall say what I think.
Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamquam, etc.
309. Clauses introduced by quamvTs, quamquam, etsi,
tametsi, cum, although, while often classed as ' Conces-
sive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive
204 Syntax.
clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede any-
thing, but rather state that something is true in spite of
something else. They accordingly emphasize the adver-
sative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative
Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these
clauses have different meanings and take different con-
structions, as follows : —
1. Quamvis, however much., although., does not introduce a state-
ment of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed
by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense ; as, —
homines quamvis in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum animis
relaxantur, /;/ however stirring events men inay engage., yet at
times they relax their e?iergies ;
non est potestas opitulandi rei publicae quamvis ea prematur
periculis, there is no opportunity to succor the state., though it
be beset by dangers.
2. Quamquam, etsi, tametsi, although., introduce a statement of
fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense) ; as, —
quamquam omnis virtus nos allicit, tamen justitia id maxime
efficit, although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so espe-
cially ;
Caesar, etsT nondum consilium hostium cognoverat, tamen id
quod accidit suspicabatur, Caesar, though he did not yet know
the plans of the enemy, yet was siispecting what actually occurred.
a. Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if. The latter
is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible
for si. (See §^ 302-304.)
3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive; as, —
Atticus honores non petiit, cum ei paterent, Atticus did 7iot seek
ho7iors, though they were open to him.
4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 308, a) and sinks to
the level of a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the
Subjunctive, Present or Perfect ; as, —
licet omnes terrores impendeant, succurram, though all terrors
hang over me, {yet) I will lend aid.
5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce
principal clauses ; as, —
quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do f speak?
Clauses of Proviso. — Relative Clauses. 205
6, In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the Sub-
junctive, while quamvis is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes
either the Indicative or tlie Subjunctive. Thus : —
quamquam moveretur his vocibus, although he -was moved by these words ;
quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought ;
quamvis infesto animo perveneras, though you had come with hostile intent.
Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish
or a Proviso.
310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive
(negative ne) and have two distinct uses : —
I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish
entertained by the subject of the leading verb ; as, —
multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam consequantur,
many ?ieglect honor in their desire to obtain power {if only they
may attain ) ;
omnia postposui, dum praeceptis patris parerem, I made everything
else secondary., iji 7ny desire to obey the injiuictions of niy father ;
hi) obstat tibi, dum ne sit ditior alter, nothing hinders you in your
desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you.
II. They are used to express a proviso {^provided
that ') ; as, —
oderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear ;
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria,
old men retain their factdties, provided only they retain their
interest ai^d vigor ;
nubant, dum ne dos fiat comes, let the7n marry, provided no dowry
goes with it.
Note. — Of these two uses of dum, modo, and dummodo, the first is the
original one ; the second has grown out of the first, and frequently retains the origi-
nal notion of wishing, as in 5derint, dum metuant.
Relative Clauses.
311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pro-
nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.
312. I. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood,
especially clauses introduced bv those General Relatives which are
doubled or have the suffix -cunque ; as, —
2o6 Syntax.
quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever it is, I
fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts ;
quidquid oritur, qualecunque est, causam a natura habet, what-
ever comes into beitig, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause
in Nature.
2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any
of the three types mentioned in §§ 302-304; as, —
qui hoc dicit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type) ;
qui hoc die at, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Sec-
ond Type) ;
qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have been
jnis taken. '^
INDIRECT DISCOURSE {ORATIO OBLIQUA).
313. When the language or thought of any person is
quoted without change, that is called Direct Discourse
{pmtid Recta)', as, Caesar said, ^ TJie die is cast! When,
on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to
depend upon a verb of saying, tJiijiking, etc., that is called
Indirect Discourse {O ratio Obliqtia) ; as, Caesar said that
the die zvas cast ; Caesar tJioiigJit that his troops were
victorious.
a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect
Discourse, see § 331.
MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Declaratory Sentences.
314. I. Declaratory Sentences upon becoming Indirect
change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunc-
tive ; as, —
Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium teneretur non esse
se senatorem, Regulus said that as long as he was held by his
pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. (Direct : qnam diu
teneor non sum senator.)
Indirect Discourse. 207
2. The verb of sayings thinkings etc., is sometimes to be inferred
from the context ; as, —
turn Romulus legates circa vicinas gentes misit qui societatein
conubiumque peterent : urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex
infimo nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around aitiong the
neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of ijtter-
rnarriage, {saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a
modest beginning.
3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of
the writer are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, and hence
regularly take the Indicative; as, —
certior factus ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concesserat, omnes
noctu discessisse, he was inforjned that all had departed by
night from that part of the village which he had granted to the
Gauls.
4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form,
and in sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where
qui is equivalent to et hic, nam hic, etc. ; as, —
dixit urbem Atheniensium propugnaculum oppositum esse bar-
baris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufra-
gium, he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the
barbaj'ians like a bulwark, near which (= and near it) the fleets
of the King had twice met disaster.
5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted
when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading
verb, or can easily be supplied from the context ; as, —
cum id nescire Mago diceret, when Mago said he did not know
this (for se nescire).
Interrogative Sentences.
315. I. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon
becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunc-
tive ; as, —
Ariovistus Caesari respondit : se prius in Galliani venisse quam
populum Romanum. Quid sibi vellet ? Cur in siias
possessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he
2o8 Syntax.
had come hito Gaid before the Roman people. What did he
{Caesar^ 77iean ? Why did he come into his domain ? (Direct :
quid tibi vis ? cur in meas possessiones veins ?)
2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked
merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic
statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Dis-
course. Thus : —
quid est levius (lit. what is 7nore trivial, — nothing is more trivial)
of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the In-
direct.
3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain un-
changed in mood in the Indirect; as, —
quid faceret, what was he to do ? (Direct : quid faciam?)
Imperative Sentences.
316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the
Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the In-
direct ; as, —
milites certiores fecit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he
told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct:
intermittite.)
a. The Negative in such sentences is ne ; as, —
ne suae virtuti tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own
valor !
TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
A. Tenses of the Infinitive.
317. These are used in accordance with the regular
principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in § 270.
a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the
Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus : —
scio te haec egisse may mean —
I know yon were doing this. (Direct: haec agebas.)
I know you did this. (Direct: haec egisti.)
I know you had do?ie this. (Direct: haec egeras.)
Indirect Discourse. 209
J5. Tenses of the Subjunctive.
318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence
of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying is Princi-
pal ; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of
vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used
after an historical tense ; as, —
Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturiim,
Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would 7nake peace.
a. For the sequence after the Perfect infinitive, see § 268, 2.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Conditional Sentences of the First T>pe.
319. A. The Apodosis. Any tense of the Indicative
is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive
(§§ 270; 317,4
B. The Protasis. The protasis takes those tenses of
the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence
of Tenses.
Examples : —
Direct. Indirect.
- 1 - _ ,. _ f dico, si hoc credas, te errare ;
SI hoc credis, erras, \ ^ _ ' '
[ dixi, SI hoc crederes, te errare.
si hoc credes, errabis, | ^^^°' ^' ^^^ ^^^^^^' ^^ erraturum esse ;
[ dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum esse.
r dlco, si hoc credideris, te erraturum
I esse ;
I dixT, SI hoc credidisses, te erraturum
I
-,- -j-t.- --4.- f dico, SI hoc crederes, te erravisse ;
SI hoc credebas, erravisti, ^ _ _ ' _ ' _ '
[ dixi, SI hoc crederes, te erravisse.
a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse
regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after
a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an his-
torical tense.
p
2IO Syntax.
Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.
320. A. The Apodosis. The Present Subjunctive of
the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infini-
tive of the Indirect.
B. The Protasis. The Protasis takes those tenses of
the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.
Examples : —
- , _ _ ,_ _ f dico, SI hoc credas, te erraturum esse:
SI hoc credas, erres, J _ _ _ _ _
[ dixi, SI hoc crederes, te erraturum esse.
Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.
321. A. The Apodosis.
I. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse
becomes: —
a) In the Active Voice the Future Infinitive.
b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum esse (fore)
ut, with the .Imperfect Subjunctive.
2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse
becomes : —
a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse.
b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut
with the Imperfect Subjunctive.
B. The Protasis. The protasis in Conditional Sen-
tences of this type always remains unchanged.
Examples : —
si hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixT), sT h5c crederes, te erra-
turum esse ;
si hoc credidisses, erravisses, dico (dixT), sT hoc credidisses, te
erraturum fuisse ;
si hoc dixisses, piinitus esses, dico (dlxI), sT hoc dixisses fiitu-
rum fuisse ut punireris.
322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third
Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause, or a
Indirect Discourse. 21 1
quin-clause (after non dubito, etc.^, it stands in the Perfect Sub-
junctive in the form -urus f uerim ; as, —
ita territi sunt, ut arma tradituri fuerint,i nisi Caesar subito
advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given
up their amis, had not Caesar suddenly arrived',
non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris,^ / do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you woidd have made a mistake.
a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the
Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent,
remain unchanged ; as, —
non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, vituperatus esses, /
do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have
been blamed.
b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a con-
ditional sentence of the Third Type, -urus fuerim (rarely
-urus fuissem) is used; as, —
quaero, num, si hoc dixisses, erratiirus fueris (or
fuisses).
c. Pottii, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this
Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as. —
concursu t5tiu6 civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos
quoque oratores populi studia excitare potuerint,
t/iey were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that
the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even
the most apathetic orators.
IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose
Indirect character is merely implied by the context; as, —
demonstrabantur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates de immortali-
tate animorum disseruisset, there were explained to i}ie be-
sides, the argu7nents which Socrates had set forth concerning the
immortality of the soul {i.e. the arguments which, it was said,
Socrates had set forth) ;
Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit,
Paetus gave me all the books which {as he said) his father had left.
1 Tradituri fuerint an.d erraturus fueris are to be regarded as repre-
senting tradituri fuerunt and erraturus fuisti of Direct Discourse. (See
2 1 2 Syntax.
SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.
324. I. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Sub-
junctive are frequently attracted into the same mood,
especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute
an essential paj't of one complex idea ; as, —
nemo avarus adhuc inventus est, cui, quod haberet, esset satis,
no i7iiser has yet been found who was satisfied with what he
had ;
cum diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et
animi et ingenii redderent, as they brought forward differ-
ent arguments, while each mirrored his own individual tyfie of
mi?id and natural bent.
quod ego fatear, pudeat, should I be ashamed of a thing which I
admit?
2. Similady a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive
is put in the Subjunctive vv^hen the two form one closely united
whole ; as, —
mos est Athenis quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in
proeliis interfecti, // is the custom at Atheiis every year for
those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle.
(Here the notion of ' praising those who fell in battle ' forms
an inseparable whole.)
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.
325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and
Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb,
on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the
other. Thus : —
As Verbs, —
rt) They may be limited by adverbs ;
b) They admit an object \
c) They have the properties of voice and tense.
As Nouns or Adjectives, —
a) They are declined ;
b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 213
THE INFINITIVE.
Infinitive without Subject Accusative.
326. This may be used either as Subject or Object.
Note. — The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be
seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as, nec dulces occur-
rent oscula nati praeripere, and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses.
A. As Subject.
327. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is
used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs,
particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, delectat,
placet, libet, licet, praestat, condiicit, expedit, decet, pudet,
interest, etc. ; as, —
dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, // is sweet and noble to die
for ojie's country ;
virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem pati, // is the part of brave
7nen to endure pain with patience ;
senatui placuit legates mittere, the Senate decided (lit. it pleased the
Senate) to send envoys.
2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may
take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative ; as, —
aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, it is one thing to be irascible^
another to be angry ;
impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, to do whatever you
please with impunity, that is to be a king.
a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate
Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as,
licuit esse otioso Themistocli, lit. it was permitted to Themisto-
cles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other Impersonals.
B. As Object.
328. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is
used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action
of the same subject, particularly after —
V0I6, cupio, malo, nolo; c6^it6,m.ediitor, purpose, intend;
Clebeo, ought ; neglego, neglect ;
scatuo, constitno, decide-. vereor, timeo, /^<zr ;
2 1 4 Syntax.
audeS, dare ; mature, festino, propero, con-
studeo, contends, strive ; tendo, hasten ;
paro, prepare (so paratus) ; assuesco, consuesco, accustom
incipio, coepi, instituo, begm ; myse// (so assuetus, insuetus,
pergo, cojitinue ; assuefactus) ;
desino, desisto, cease ; disco, learn ;
possum, can ; scio, know how ;
Conor, try ; soleo, am wont; as, —
tu hos intueri audes, do you dare to look 07i these men?
Demosthenes ad fluctum maris declamare solebat, Demosthenes
used to declaim by the waves of the sea .
2. A Predicate Noun oj* Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted
into the Nominative ; as, —
beatus esse sine virtute nemo potest, 710 one can be happy without
virtue ;
Cats esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred to be good
rather thaji to seem so.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
329. This may be used either as Subject or Object.
A. As Subject.
330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the
simple Infinitive) appears as Subject with esse and Imper-
sonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, justum est, utile
est, turpe est, apertum est, perspicuum est, fama est, opinio
est, spes est, fas est, nefas est, opu3 est, necesse est, oportet,
apparet, constat, praestat, etc. ; as, —
nihil in bello oportet contemni, not hijig ought to be despised in war ;
apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum, // is manifest that
by nature everybody is dearest to hifnself.
B. As Object.
331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as
Object after the following classes of verbs : —
I. Most frequently after verbs of sayings thinkings knowing, per-
ceivingy and the like (Verba Sentiendi et Dicldrandt). This is the
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 215
regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs
that take this construction are, among others, the following : sentio,
audio, video, cognosco ; puto, judico, spero, confido ; scio,
memini; dico, affirmo, nego {say that . . . 7iot), trado, narro,
fateor, respondeo, scribo, promitto, glorior. Also the phrases :
certiorem facio (in/orm), memoria tened (rememder), etc.
Examples : —
Epicure! putant cum corporibus simul animos interire, the Epi-
cureans think that the soul perishes with the body ;
Thales dixit aquam esse initium rerum, Thales said that water was
the first principle of the universe ;
Democritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritus says
nothing is everlastijig ;
spero eum. venturum esse, / hope that he will come.
II. With jubeo, order., and ^eto, forbid; as, —
Caesar milites pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to
?nake a bridge.
a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do
something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeo and veto is put in
the Passive ; as, Caesar pontem fieri jussit.
III. With patior and sino, permit, allow ; as, —
niillo se implicari negotio passus est, he did not permit hiutself to
be involved in a?iy difficulty.
IV. With V0I6, nolo, malo, cupio, when the Subject of the Infini-
tive is different from that of the governing verb ; as, —
nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, itor do I wish this error to
be wrested from me ;
eas res jactari nolebat, he was unwilling that these matters should be
discussed ;
te tuis divitiis frul cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your wealth.
a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is
regularly used in accordance with § 328, i. But exceptions occur, es-
pecially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives; as, —
cupio me esse clementem, / desire to be lenient ;
Timoleon maluit se diligi quam metui, Timoleon preferred to
be loved rather than feared.
b. Volo and nolo also admit the Subjunctive, with or without ut.
(See \ 296, I, a.)
2 1 6 Syntax.
V. With Verbs of emotioft {Joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especially
gaudeo, laetor, doleo ; aegre fero, moleste fero, graviter fero, am
amioyed, distressed-, miror, queror, indignor ; as, —
gaudeo te salvum advenire, I rejoice that you arrive safely,
non moleste ferunt se libidinum vinculis laxatos esse, they are
not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion ;
miror te ad me nihil scribere, I wonder that you write me iiothing.
a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod-
ciause as Object. (See § 299.) Thus : —
miror quod non loqueris, / wonder that you do 71 ot speak.
VI. Some verbs wliich take two Accusatives, one of the Person and
the other of the Thing (§ 178, i) may substitute an Infinitive for the
second Accusative ; as, —
cogo te hoc facere, I compel you to do this {cf. te hoc cogo) ;
docui te contentum esse, / taught you to be content {cf. te miodes-
tiam docui, I taught you temperance).
Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.
332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by
the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the
personal construction in the Passive. This is true of the
following : —
a) jubeor, vetor, sinor ; as, —
milites pontem facere jussl sunt, the soldiers were ordered
to build a bridge ;
pons fieri jussus est, a bridge was ordered built]
milites castris exire vetiti sunt, the troops were forbidden
to go out of the ca7np ;
Sestius Clodium accusare non est situs, Sestius was
not allowed to accuse Clodius.
b) videor, I a7n see?i, I seem ; as, —
videtur comperisse, he seems to have discovered.
c) dicor, putor, existimor, judicor (in all persons) ; as, —
dicitur in Italiam venisse, he zj said to have come into
Italy,
Rdmulus primus rex Romanorum fuisse putatur, Romu-
lus is thought to have been the first king of the Romans.
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 217
d) fertur, feruntur, traditur, traduntur (only in the third
person) ; as, —
fertur Homerus caecus f uisse, Homer is said to have been
blind',
carmina ArcMlochi contumeliis referta esse traduntur,
Archilochiis's poejns are reported to have been full of
abuse.
Note. — In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of
verbs, c) , d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as, —
traditum est Homeruni caecum f uisse, the story goes that Homer was
blind.
Infinitive \Arith Adjectives.
333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus,
etc.; see § 328, i) occurs only in poetry and post- Augustan prose
writers ; as, —
contentus demonstrasse, contented to have proved;
audax omnia perpeti, bold for enduring everything.
Infinitive in Exclamations.
334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indig-
nation, or reg'fct. An interrogative (or intensive) -ne is often attached
to some word in the clause. Examples : —
huncine solem tam nigrum surrexe mihi, to think that to-day's sun
rose with such evil oinen for vie !
sedere totos dies in villa, to stay whole days at the villa!
Historical Infinitive.
335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the
Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative ; as, —
interim cottidie Caesar Aeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile
Caesar was daily de}nandi7ig grain of the Aedui.
PARTICIPLES.
Tenses of the Participle.
336. I. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the
Infinitive (see § 270), express time not absolutely, but with
reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.
2i8 Syntax.
2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that of
the verb. Thus : —
audio te loquentem =you are speakhig and I hear you ;
audiebam te loquentem =you were speaking a7id I heard yon ;
audiam te loquentem —yon will be speaking and I shall hear yon.
a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative
force ; as, —
assurgentem regem resupinat, as the king was trying to
rise., he threw him down.
3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of
the verb. Thus : —
locutus taceo = /have spoken a7id am silejit ;
locutus tacui = /had spoken and then was silent',
locutus tacebo — I shall speak and then shall be silent.
4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, ii
determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.
5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-
Deponent Verbs are used as Presents ; viz. arbitratus, ausus, ratus,
gavisus, solitus, usus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus.
Use of Participles.
337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either
as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.
1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Ex-
amples are : —
gloria est consentiens laus bonorum, glory is the n7iani7nous praise
of the good ',
Conon muros a L;9-sandro dirutos reficit, Co7ion restored the walls
destroyed by Lysander.
2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often ^equivalent to a
subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote : —
«) Time ; as, —
omne malum nascens facile opprimitur, every evil is
easily crushed at birth.
^) A Condition ; as, —
mente uti non possumus cibo et potione completi, if
gorged with food a7id drink, we can7iot nse our i7iteUects.
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 219
c) Manner ; as, —
Solon senescere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem,
Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily.
d) Means ; as, —
sol oriens diem conficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the
day.
e) Opposition (' though ') ; as, —
mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicenti ciedimus,
we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth.
/) Cause ; as, —
perfidiam veritus ad suos recessit, since he feared
treachery, he retiirned to his own troops.
3. Video and audio, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Par-
ticiple in the Predicate use ; as, —
video te fugientem, / see you fleeing,
a. So frequently facio, fingo, induco, etc.; as, —
eis Catonem respondentem facinaus, we represent Cato reply-
ing to them ;
Homerus Laertem colentem agruna facit, Ho?ner represents
Laertes tilling the field.
4. The Future Active Participle (except futurus) is regularly con-
fined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later
writers it is used independently, especially to denote purpose ; as, —
venerunt castra oppugnaturl, they came to assault the camp.
5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a co-ordi-
nate clause ; as, —
urbem captam diruit, he captured and destroyed tlie city (lit. he de-
stroyed the city caj)tured) .
6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is
sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive ;
as,—
post urbem conditam, after the founditig of the city ;
Quinctius defensus, Ihe defense of Quinctius ;
quibus animus ocoupatus, the preoccupation of the mind with which.
7. Habeo sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predi-
cate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect
or Pluperfect Indicative; as, —
copias quas coactas habebat, the forces which he had collected-
220 Syntax.
8. The Gerandive denotes obligation or necessity. Like other Par-
ticiples it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.
a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus : —
liber legendus, a book worth reading ',
leges observandae, laws deserving of observance.
b) More frequently as Predicate.
i) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus
est, etc.). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only
impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction
(Gen., Dat, Abl.) ; as, —
veniendum est, // is necessary to co?ne;
obliviscendum est injuriarum, one must forget injuries ;
numquam proditori credendum est, j^?/ 7tiiist never trust.
a traitor ,-
suo cuique utendum est judicio, every man must use his
ownJHclgment.
2) After euro, provide for; do, trado, give over ; relin-
quo, leave; concgdo, hand over; and some other verbs,
instead of an object clause or to denote purpose ; as, —
Caesar pontem in Arare faciendum curavit, Caesar pro-
vided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar ;
imperator urbem militibus diripiendam concessit, the
general handed over the city to the soldiers to piimder.
9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, i .
THE GERUND.
338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun con-
structions as follows : —
I. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used —
^) With nouns, as Objective or Appositional Genitive (see
§§ 200, 202) ; as, —
cupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling;
ars scribendi, the art of writing.
b') With Adjectives ; as, —
cupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing.
c) With causa, gratia ; as, —
discendi causa, /^r the sake of learning.
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 221
2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used —
a) With Adjectives ; as, —
aqua utilis est bibendo, water is usefid for drinking.
b) With Verbs (rarely ) ; as, —
adf ui scribendo, / was present at the writing.
3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with
Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose ; as, —
hom5 ad agendum natus est, 7nan is born for action.
4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used —
^) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc.
(see §§ 218, 219); as,—
mens discendo alitur et cogitando, the mind is nourished
by learning and reflection.
Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare
tutum reddidit, The?nistocles made the sea safe by fol-
lowing up the pirates.
b) After the prepositions a, de, ex, in ; as, —
summa voluptas ex discendS capitur, the keenest pleas-
tire is derived fr 0771 learning;
multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata
sunt, there was 77iuch discussion by Plato on the subject
of livi7tg well and happily.
5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative
(without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.
Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.
339. I. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a
Direct Object, another construction may be, and very often is, jised.
This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund
(Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This
is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus : —
Gerund Construction. Gerundive Construction.
cupidus urbem videndi, desirous
r • .1 ■. ( cupidus urbis videndae
of seeing the city ; J ^
delector oratores legendo, I am\ ^_, _ _ .,
, 7 v,7 J- si u ^ delector oratoribus legendia.
char med with readuig the orators.
222 Syntax.
2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct
Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon
a Preposition ; as, —
locus castris muniendis SL-ptns, a place adapted to fortifying a camp-,
ad pacem petendam venerunt, they came to ask peace;
multum temporis consumo in legendis poetis, / spend ?Huch time
in readittg the poets.
3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Con-
struction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used
substantively. Thus regularly —
philosophi cupidi sunt verum investigandi, philosophers are eager
for discovering truth (rarely veri investigandi) ;
studiura plura cognoscendl, a desire of knowing tnore (not plurium
cognoscendorum) .
4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used
in the Gerundive Construction ; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (orig-
inally transitive) regularly admit it ; as, —
hostes in spem potiundorum oastrorum venerant, the enejny had
conceived the hope of gaining possession of the ca?np.
5. The Genitives mei, tui, suT, nostri, vestri, when used in the
Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to
Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjec-
tives used substantively. Thus : —
mulier sui servandi causa aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of
saving herself;
legati in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys cartie into
camp for the purpose of clearing themselves ;
50 nostri servandi causa, for the sake of saving ourselves.
6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used
to denote purpose; as, —
51 arborum trunci sive naves deiciendi operis essent a barbaris
missae, if trunks of trees or boats should be sent down by the
barbarians for the purpose of destroying the structure.
7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some ex-
pressions which have the character of formulas ; as, —
decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws ;
quindecimviri sacris faciundis, quindecemvirs for performing the
sacrifices.
Coordinate Conjunctions. 223
THE SUPINE.
340. I. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express
purpose ; as, —
legati ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, envoys came to Cae-
sar to co7igratnlate him.
a. The Supine in -um may take an Object ; as, —
pacem petitum oratores Romam mittunt, they send en-
voys to Ro7ne to ask for peace.
b. Note the phrase : —
do (colloco) filiam nuptum, / give my daughter in mar-
riage.
2. The Supine in -u is used as an Ablative of Specification with
facilis, difiicilis, incredibilis, jticundus, optimus, etc. ; also with
fas est, nef as est, opus est ; as, —
haec res est facilis cognitu, this thing is easy to learn ;
hoc est optimum factu, this is best to do.
a. Only a few Supines in -u are in common use, chiefly auditu,
cognitu, dictii, factu, visii.
b. The Supine in -u never takes an Object.
Chapter VI. — Particles,
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
341. Copulative Conjunctions. These join one word,
phrase, or clause to another.
I. «) et simply connects.
b^ -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where
the two members have an internal connection with each
other; as, —
parentes liberique, parents and children ;
cum homines aestu febrique jactantur, ivhen people are
tossed about with heat and fever.
224 Syntax.
c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two things
connected, — atid also, and indeed, aiid in fact. After words
of likeness and difference atque (ac) has the force of as,
than. Thus : —
ego idem sentio ac tu, I tJiijik the same as you ;
haud aliter ac, not otherwise than.
d) neque (nee) means and not, neither, nor.
2. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of
two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses
it is appended to the first word of the second clause ; but
when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition,
-que is regularly appended to the next following word ; as, —
ob eamque rem, atid on account of that thing.
b) atque is used before vowels and consonants ; ac never before
vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu,
c') et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative
rests upon a special word ; as, —
vetus et non ignobilis orator, an old and not ig?toble orator.
d) For and nowhere, and never, and none, the Latin regularly
said nee usquam, nee umquam, nee ullus, etc.
3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used
correlatively ; as, —
et . . . et, both . . . and ;
neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor;
cum , . . tum, while . . . at the same time ;
tum . . . tum, not only . . . but also.
Less frequently : —
et . . . neque ; neque . . . et.
a. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical relations,
often uses correlatives, especially et . . . et, et . . . neque, where
the English employs but a single connective.
4. In enumerations —
a) The different members of a series may follow one another
without connectives (Asyndeton ; see § 346). Thus : —
ex cupiditatibus odia, discidia, discordiae, seditiones,
bella nascuntur,yr^;;// covetous desires spring up hatred,
dissensions, discord, sedition, wars.
Coordinate Conjunctions. 225
b) The different members may severally be connected by et
(Polysyndeton). Thus : —
horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, hours and days
and years and ^nont/is pass away.
c) The connective may be omitted between the former members,
while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et) ; as, —
Caesar in Carnutes, Andes Turonesque legiones dedu-
cit, Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the
Carnutes, Andes, atid Turones.
342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative.
1. ^) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually ex-
clusive ; as, —
cita mors venit aut victoria laeta, {either^ swift death or
glad victory conies.
d) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alterna-
tives ; as, —
qui aether vel caelum nominatur, which is called aether
or heaven.
2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correla-
tively; as, —
aut . . . aut, either . . .or;
vel . . . vel, either . . .or;
sive . . . sive, if orif.
343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote oppo-
sition.
I. ^) sed, (^//'Z, merely denotes opposition.
b) verum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used.
c') autem, but on the other hand, however, marks a transition.
It is always post-positive.
Definition. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sen-
tence, but is placed after one or more words.
d^ at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an
opposing argument.
e) atqui means but yet.
f) tamen, yet, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not
always.
g) vero, however, indeed, in truth, is always post-positive.
Q
226 Syntax.
2. Note the correlative expressions : —
non solum (non modo) . . . sed etiam, not only . . . but also ;
noil modo non . . . sed ne . . . quidem, 7tot only not, but not
even ; as, —
non modo tibi non irasoor, sed ne reprehends quidem factum
tuum, / not only am not atigry with you, but I do not even blame
your action.
a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the second
member, non modo may be used for non modo non; as, —
adsentatio non modo amico sed ne libero quidem dig-na
est, Jiattery is not only {not) worthy of a friend, but not even of a
free man.
344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the state-
ment which they introduce as following frojn or as in con-
formity ivitJi what has preceded.
1 . ^) itaque = and so, accordingly .
b) ergo = therefore, accordingly .
c) igitur (regularly post-positive ^) = therefore, accordingly.
2. Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.
345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote canse, or give
an explanation. They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive),
etenim, for.
346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted be-
tvi'een coordinate members, particularly in lively or impassioned
narration. Thus : —
a) A Copulative Conjunction is omitted ; as, —
avaritia infinita, insatiabilis est, avarice is boundless
{and) insatiable ;
Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of
Gnaeus Pompey {and) Marciis Crassus.
The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of
consuls when the praenomen {Marcus, Gaius, etc. ) is expressed.
b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted ; as, —
rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, argu-
7nents were lackitig, {but) abundance of words was not.
1 Except in Sallust and Silver Latin.
Adverbs. — Word-Order. 227
ADVERBS.
347. I. The following particles, sometimes classed as
Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs : —
etiam, also^ even.
quoque (always post-positive), also.
quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word.
It is sometimes equivalent to the English indeed., in fact., but
more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis.
ne . . . quidem means not even ; the emphatic word or phrase always
stands between ; as, ne ille quidem, not even he.
tamen and vero, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often
employed as Adverbs.
2. Negatives. Two Negatives are regularly equivalent to an
affirmative as in English, as non nuUi, sojne ; but when non, nemo,
nihil, numquam, etc., are accompanied by neque . . . neque, non
. . . non, non modo, or ne . . . quidem, the latter particles simply
take up the negation and emphasize it ; as, —
habeo hic neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, I have here
no one., 7ieither friend nor relative.
non enim praetereundum est ne id quidem, y^'r 7iot even that must
be passed by.
a. Haud in Cicerc and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier
of Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an. Later
writers use it freely with verbs.
Chapter VII. — Word-Order and Sentence-
Structure.
A. "WORD -ORDER.
348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence
the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the
Predicate at the end ; as, —
Darius classem quingentarum navium comparavit, Darius got
ready a fleet of five hundred ships.
228 Syntax.
349. But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrange-
ment is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put
at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sen-
tence ; as, —
magnus in hoc bello Themistocles fuit, great was Themistocles in
this war ;
aliud iter habemus nullum^ ol/ier course we have none.
SPECIAL PRINCIPLES.
350. I. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly fol-
lows the word upon which it depends. Thus : —
a) Depending upon a Noun : —
tribunus plebis, tribune of the plebs ;
filius regis, so?i of the king',
vir magni animi, a ma7i of jioble spirit.
Yet always senatus consultum, plebis scitum.
b) Depending upon an Adjective : —
ignarus rerum, ignorant of affairs ;
digni amicitia, worthy of friendship ;
pliis aequo, more than (what is) fair.
2. Appositives. An Appositive regularly follows its Subject;
as,—
Philippus, rex Macedonum, Philip, king of the Macedonians ;
adsentatio, vitiorum adiHtiix, ffattery, promoter of evils.
Yet flumen Rhenus, the River Rhine; and always in good prose
urbs Roma, the city Ro)ne.
3. The Vocative usually follows one or more words 5 as, —
Audi, Caesar, hear, Caesar !
4. Adjectives. No general law can be laid down for the posi-
tion of Adjectives. On the whole they precede the noun oftener
than they follow it.
a. Adjectives of quantity (including nu7nerals') regularly pre-
cede their noun; as, —
omnes homines, all men ;
septingentae naves, seven hundred vessels.
Word-Order, 229
b. Note the force of position in the following : —
media urbs, the middle of the city ;
urbs media, the middle city ;
extremum bellum, the end of the war j
bellum extremum, the last war.
c Romanus and Latinus regularly follow ; as, —
senatus populusque Romanus, the Ro7naii Senate and
People ;
ludl Romani, the Roman games ;
feriae Latinae, the Latin holidays.
d. When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Geni-
tive, a favorite order is : Adjective, Genitive, Noun ; as, —
summa omnium rerum abundantia, the greatest abun-
dance of all things.
Pronouns.
a. The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns
regularly precede the Noun ; as, —
hio homo, this man ;
ille homo, that man ;
erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc., there were two
routes, by which, etc.
qui homo ? what sort of a man ?
b. But ille in the sense of ' that well known,'' ' that famous,''
usually stands after its Noun ; as, —
testula ilia, that well-known custom of ostracism ;
Medea ilia, that famous Medea.
c. Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their
Noun ; as, —
pater mens, my father ',
homo quidam, a certain 7nan ;
mulier aliqua, some woman.
But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes
its Noun ; as, —
meus pater, my father (i.e. as opposed to yours, his, etc.).
d. Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence,
the Latin is fond of putting them in close proximity ; as, —
nisi forte ego vobis cessare videor, unless perchance 1
seem to you to be doing nothing.
230 Syntax.
6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they
modify; as, —
valde diligens, ext7'e7nely diligent ;
saepe dixi, I have often said-,
te jam diu hortamur, we have lojig been urgi7ig yon ;
paulo post, a little after.
7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern.
a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition
and its case ; as, —
de communi hominum memoria, concerning the cojninon
memory of men ;
ad beate vivendum,/(?r living happily .
b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is
often placed before the preposition ; as, —
magno in dolore, in great g?'ief ;
summa cum laude, with the highest credit ;
qua de causa, /'6'r which cause',
banc ob rem, on account of this thing.
c. For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see § 144, 3^
8. Conjunctions. Autem, enim, and igitur regularly stand in
the second place in the sentence, but when combined with est or
sunt they often stand third; as, —
ita est enim,y^r so it is.
9. Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some
part of it, regularly stand first ; as, —
id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard that (referring
to the contents of the preceding sentence), /z<? moved to Corcyra ;
eo cum Caesar venisset, timentes confirmat, when Caesar had
come thither (i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the
timid.
10. The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which
are etymologically related ; as, —
ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum
amicissimus de amicitia scripsT, as /, ajt old 7na7t, wrote to
an old man, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, I have
written to a friend concerning friendsJiip.
Word-Order. 231
11. Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the
following : —
a) Hyp^rbaton, which consists in the separation of words that
regularly stand together ; as, —
Septimus mihi Originum liber est in manibus, the
seventh book of my ' Origines ' is under way ;
recepto Caesar Orico proficiscitur, having recovered
Oricns, Caesar set out.
b) Anaphora, which consists in the repetition of the same word
or the same word-order in successive phrases ; as, —
sed pleni omnes sunt libri, plenae sapientium voces,
plena exemplorum vetustas, but all books are full of
it, the voices of sages are ftdl of it, antiqidty is full of
exainpies of it.
c) Chiasmus,! which consists in changing the relative order
of words in two antithetical phrases ; as, —
multos defend!, laesi neminem, 77ia7iy have I defended, I
have injured no one ;
horribilem ilium diem aliis, nobis faustum, that day
dreadful to others, for us fortunate.
d) Synchysis, or the interlocked arrangement. This is mostly
confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially
that of the Imperial Period; as, —
simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium, pretended
interest in the Pompeian party.
12. Metrical Close. At the end of a sentence certain cadences
were avoided ; others were much employed. Thus : —
a) Cadences avoided.
_ w w _ ^ ; as, esse videtur (close of hexameter).
w w :->: ; as, esse potest (close of pentameter) .
b) Cadences frequently employed.
\j ; as, auxerant.
w \j \ as, comprobavit.
www w ; as, esse videatur.
w w ; as, rogatii tuo.
1 So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter X {cht^.
Thus : —
multos laesI
defend! neminem
232 Syntax,
B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.
351. I. Unity of Subject. — In complex sentences the Latin
regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different members ; as, —
Caesar primum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu remotis
equis, ut aequato periculo spem fugae toUeret, cohor-
tatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first re?noved
his own horse from sighi, then the horses of all, in order ^ by
makifig the danger equals to take away hope of flighty encouraged
his men and joined battle.
2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main
clause and a subordinate one, stands before both ; as, —
Aedul cum se defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem
mittunt, since the Aedui could not defend themselves^ they sent
envoys to Caesar ;
ille etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum
putavit, although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he
thought he ought to aim at peace.
a. The same is true also
i) When the Subject of the main clause is Object
(Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause; as, —
Caesar, cum hoc ei nuntiatum. esset, maturat ab urbe
proficisci, when this had been reported to Caesar he
hast et led to set out from the city.
2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the
same time the Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main
clause ; as, —
L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. PompSnius tri-
bunus plebis diem dixit, M. Po7npo7iius, tribune of
the people, institided proceedings against Lucius Man-
lius though he had bee?i dictator.
3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative
clauses more commonly precede the main clause ; indirect questions
and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follov^^ ; as, —
postquara haec dixit, profectus est, after he said this, he set out ;
SI quis ita agat, imprudens sit, zf any one should act so, he would
be devoid of foresight ;
accidit ut una nocte omnes Hermae deicerentur, it happened
that in a single night all the Hermae were thrown down.
Sentence-Structicre. — Hints on Style, 233
4. Sometimes in Latin the main verb is placed within the sub-
ordinate clause ; as, —
si quid est in me ingeni, quod sentio quam sit exiguum, if there
is any talent in me^ and I know how little it is.
5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used,
designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are
inserted within the main clause ; as, —
Caesar etsi intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne
aestatem in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum
ad se venire jussit, though Caesar perceived why this was
saidj yet., lest he should be forced to spend the siuni7ier among
the Treveri., he ordered Indtitiomarus to come to him.
In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of
the sentence is reached. Many Roman writers were extremely fond of
this sentence-structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional
character of their language ; in English we generally avoid it.
6. When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the
Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs. Thus : —
At hostes cum misissent, qui, quae in castris gererentur, cog-
noscerent, ubi se deceptos intellexerunt, omnibus copiis
subsecuti ad flumen contendunt, but the enemy when> they
had sent uien to learn what was going on in camp., after dis-
covering that they had beeji outwitted^ followed with all their
forces and hurried to the river.
Chapter VIII. — Hints on Latin Style.
352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to
a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to
style than to formal grammar.
NOUNS.
353. I. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is
involved, the Latin is frequently much 7nore exact in the use of the
Plural than is the English ; as, —
234 Syntax.
domos eunt, they go home (i.e. to their homes) ;
Germani corpora curant, the Germans care for the body ;
animos militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers ;
dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night.
2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively,
the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singu-
lar; as, —
omnia sunt perdita, everything is lost ;
quae cum ita sint, since this is so ;
haec omnibus pervulgata sunt, this is very well known to all.
3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and espe-
cially less bold i7i the personification of abstract qualities. Thus : —
a puero, a pueris, from boyhood-,
Sulla dictatore, in Stdla^s dictatorship ;
me duce, 7inder ?ny leadership ;
Roman! cum Carthaginiensibus pacem fecerunt = Rome made
peace with Cartilage ;
liber doctrinae plenus = a learned book ;
priidentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est = Themistocles^s fore-
sight saved Greece.
4. 'The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see § 147, i) denote a
permanejtt or characteristic activity; as, —
accusatores (professional) accusers;
oratores, pleaders ;
cantores, singers ;
Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arfninius, liberator of Germany.
a. To denote sing-le instances of an action, other expressions are
commonly employed ; as, —
Numa, qui Romuld successit, Numa, successor of Romulus ;
qui mea leg-unt, my readers ;
qui me audiunt, ?ny auditors.
5. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of
a Noun. In English we say: ^The war against Carthage'' ; ^ a Journey
through Gatd ' ; ' cities 071 the sea ' ; ' the book in my hands ' ,* ^ the fight
at Sala7Jiis'' ; etc. The Latin in such cases usually employs another
mode of expression. Thus : —
a) A Genitive ; as, —
dolor injiiriarum, rese7itment at injuries.
Hints on Style, 235
b) An Adjective ; as, —
urbes maritimae, cities on the sea ;
pugiia Salaminia, t/ie fight at Satamis.
c) A Participle ; as, —
pugna ad Cannas facta, the battle at Catinae.
d) A Relative clause ; as, —
liber qui in meis manibus est, the book in my hands.
Note. — Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepo-
sitional phrases as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent
when the governing noun is derived from a verb. The following are
typical examples : —
transitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain ;
excessus e vita, departure from life ;
odium erga Romanos, hatred of the Romans ;
liber de senectute, the book on old age ;
amor in patriam, love for one^s country.
ADJECTIVES.
354. I. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjec-
tives are —
^) A Genitive ; as, —
virtutes animi = moral virtues ;
dolores corporis = bodily ills.
b) An Abstract Noun ; as, —
novitas rei = the strange circumstance ;
asperitas viarum = rough roads.
c^ Hendiadys (see § 374, 4) ; as, —
ratio et or do = systematic order ;
ardor et impetus = eager onset.
d) Sometimes an Adverb ; as, —
omnes circa populi, all the snrroicnding tribes ;
suos semper hostes, their perpetual foes.
2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified
by an Adjective ; as, —
doctrina, theoretical knowledge ; prudentia, practical knowledge ;
oppidum, walled town ; libellus, little book
236 Syntax,
3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper
names ; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other
word used as an Appositive of a proper name ; as, —
Socrates, homo sapiens = the wise Socrates ;
Scipio, vir f ortissimus = t/te doughty Scipio ;
Syracusae, urbs praeclarissima =/amo?is Syracuse.
4. An Adjective 7nay be equivalent to a Possessive Genitive ; as, —
pastor regius, the shepherd of the king]
tumultus servilis, the uprising of the slaves.
PRONOUNS.
355. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondness
for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main
one ; as, —
a quo cum quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit, when
it was asked of him what was best, he replied. (Less commonly,
qui, cum ab eo quaereretur, respondit.)
2. Uterque, ambo. Uterque means each of two', amb5 means
both ; as, —
uterque f rater abiit, each of the two brothers departed {i.e. sepa-
rately) ;
ambo fratres abierunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together.
a. The Plural of uterque occurs —
i) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see § 56) ; as, —
in utrisque castris, in each camp.
2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of
persons or things ; as, —
utrique duces clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (sev-
eral in number) were famous.
VERBS.
356. I. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs a Passive is
supplied : —
a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with
esse, etc. ; as, —
in odio sumus, we are hated ;
in invidia sum, I am envied;
Hints on Style. 237
admirationi est, he is admired;
oblivione obruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by
oblivion) ;
in usu esse, to be used.
b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus : —
agitarl as Passive of persequi ;
temptari as Passive of adoriri.
2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied —
a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Depo-
nent; as, —
adhortatus, having exhorted;
veritus, having feared.
b) By the Ablative Absolute ; as, —
hostium agris vastatis Caesar exercitum reduxit, hav-
ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back
his arfny.
c) By subordinate clauses ; as, —
eo cum advenisset, castra posuit, haviftg arrived there,
he pitched a camp ;
hostes qui in urbem irruperant, the enemy having burst
into the city.
3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of
the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= '•one'''). Cf
the English ' Yoit can drive a horse to water, but you canH make him
drink.'' But in Latin this use is mainly confined to certain varieties of
the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§ 280), Jussive (§ 275), De-
liberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the
sort included under § 302, 2, and 303. Examples : —
videres, you could see ;
iitare viribus use your strength ;
quid hoc homine facias, what are you to do with this maji f
mens quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum instilles
exstinguuntur senectiite, the intellect and mi)id too are ex-
tinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouritig oil
into the la7np ;
tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab eis
membra divelli citius posse diceres, they clung to their
possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would
have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies.
238 Syntax.
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE.
357. I. To denote '•so many years, etc., afterwards or before'' the
Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with
post and ante (see § 223), but has other forms of expression. Thus :^
post quinque a.nn6&,fve years afterward ;
paucos ante dies, a few days before;
ante civiB.6.xieyiniwa\, four years before ;
post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus,/i7^/r days after we
left the city ;
ante tertium annum quam decesserat, t/iree years before he had
died.
2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the
same Infinitive ; as, —
Romanes Hannibalem vicisse constat.
Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the
Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the
Romans, Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infini-
tive ; as, —
Romanes ab Hannibale viotos esse constat, it is well established
that the Rojnans were defeated by Hannibal.
PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OP
THE DATIVE.
358. I. The English /^;r does not always correspond to a Dative
notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of pro with the Ablative,
vis. in the senses —
a^ In defense of; as, —
pro patria mori, to die for one''s country.
b) Instead of , in behalf of ; as, —
unus pro omnibus dixit, one spoke for all.
haec pro lege dicta sunt, these things were said in behalf
of the law.
c) In proportion to ; as. —
pro multitudine hominum, in proportion to the popula-
tion.
Hints on Style. 239
2. Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in
Latin by ad,
a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either scribere ad
aliquem, or scribere alicui, according as the idea of motion
is or is not predominant. So in several similar expressions.
3. In the poets, verbs of mingling with., co7it ending with., sometimes
take the Dative. This construction is a Grecism. Thus : —
se miscet viris, he mingles with the 77ien ;
contendis Homero, you contend with Homer.
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.
359. I. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor,
the Dative of Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession ; as, —
hortus patris est, the garden is my father'' s ',
mihi hortus est, I possess a garden.
2. The Latin can say either stultl or stultum est dicere, it is
foolish to say; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Gen-
itive; as, —
sapientis est haec secum reputare, // is the part of a wise man to
consider this.
Part VI
PROSODY.
360. Prosody treats of metres and versification.
361. Latin Verse. Latin Poetry was essentially different
in character from English, In our own language poetry is
based upon accent, and poetical form consists essentially in
a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables.
Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon
accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poeti-
cal form consisted in a certain succession of long and short
syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time.
This fundamental difference in the character of English
and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in
character of the two languages. English is a strongly
accented language in which quantity is relatively subordi-
nate. Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative lan-
guage, in which accent was relatively subordinate.
QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
362. The general principles for the quantity of vowels
and syllables have been given above in § 5. The following
peculiarities are to be noted here : —
I. A vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel
(§ 5. ^. 2), but the following exceptions occur: —
240
Quantity of Vowels and Syllables. 241
a) In the Genitive termination -ius (except alterius); as, illius,
totius. Yet the i may be short in poetry ; as, illius, totius.
^) In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension ;
as, diei, aciei. But fidei, rei, spei (§ 52, i).
c) In fio, excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er.
Thus : fiebam, fiat, fiunt ; but fieri, fierem.
d) In a few other words, especially words derived from the
Greek ; as, dius, Aeneas, Dareus, heroes, etc.
2. A diphthong is usually long (§ 5. B. 2), but the preposition
prae in composition is often shortened before a vowel ; as, pra^acutus.
3. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants
(§ 5. i5. 2) is long, even when one of the consonants is in the follow-
ing word ; as, terret populum. Occasionally the syllable is long
when both consonants are in the following word ; as, pro segete
spioas.
4. A vowel before j is regularly long, but is short in compounds of
jugum ; as, bijugis, quadrijugis.
5. Compounds of jacio, though written inicit, adicit, etc.^ have
the first syllable long, as though written inj-, adj-. The actual pro-
nunciation of such words is not clear. Reicio has e.
Quantity of Final Syllables.
A. Final Syllables ending in a Vowel.
363. I. Final a is mostly short, but is long in the following
situations : —
a~) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension ; as, porta.
U) In the Imperative ; as, lauda.
c) In indeclinable words (except ita, quia) ; as, triginta, con-
tra, postea, interea, etc.
2. Final e is usually short, but is long —
a) In the Ablative Singular of the Fifth Declension; as,
die, re; hence hodie, quare. Here belongs also fame
(§59.2.^).
U) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation; as, monS,
habe, etc. ; yet occasionally cave, vale.
c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declen-
sion, along with fere and ferme. Bene, male, temer6,
saepe have e.
if) In e, de, me, te, se, ne (?tot, lest), ne (verily).
242 Prosody.
3. Final i is usually long, but is short in nisi and quasi. Mihi,
tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, have regularly i, but sometimes i; yet always
ibidem, ibique, ubique.
4. Final o is regularly long, but is short —
a) In ego, duo, modo {ojily), cito.
b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in
Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, amo, leo.
c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro ;
as, profundere, proficlsoi, profugere.
5 . Final u is always long.
B. Final Syllables eiidiiig in a Consonant .
364. I . Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are
short. The following words, however, have a long vowel : sal, sol,
Lar, par, ver, fur, die, due, lae, en, non, quin, sin, sic, cur, hie ^
{this). Also adverbs in c ; as, hie, hue, istie, illue, etc.
2. Final syllables in -as are long; as, terras, amas.
3. Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short —
a) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems
(§ 33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in
the Genitive; as, seges (segetis), obses (obsidis), miles,
dives. But a few have -es ; viz. pes, aries, abies, paries.
b) In es (thoH a7't'), penes.
4. Final -os is usually long, but short in 6s (ossis), compSs,
impos.
5. Final -is is usually short, but is long —
a) In Plurals ; as, portis, hortis, nobis, vobis, nubis (Ace).
b) In the Nominative Singular of Nouns of the Third Declen-
sion with long vowel in the Penult of the Genitive ; as,
Samnis (-itis).
c) In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of
the Fourth Conjugation ; as, audis.
d) In -VIS, force ; is, t/iou goest ; fis ; sis; velis ; nolis ; vis,
t/iou wilt ; (mavis, quamvis, quivis, etc.).
6. Final -us is usually short, but is long —
a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative,
and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension ; as, fructus.
1 Rarely hic.
Verse-Structure. 243
^) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of
the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem ;
as, palus (-udis), servitus (-utis), tellus (-uris).
365. Greek Nouns retain in Latin their original quantity; as,
Aenea, epitome, Deles, Pallas, Simois, Salamis, DIdus, Paridi,
aer, aether, crater, heroas. Yet Greek nouns in -cop regularly
shorten the vowel ; as, rhetor, Hector.
VERSE- STRUCTURE.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
366. I. The metrical unit in versification is a short syllable, tech-
nically called a mora (w). A long syllable ( ) is regarded as equiva-
lent to two morae.
2. A Foot is a group of syllables. The following are the most
important kinds of feet : —
Feet of Three Morae. Feet of Four Morae.
v^ Trochee. \u \j Dactyl.
\j Iambus. \j \j Anapaest.
3. A Verse is a succession of feet.
4. The dififerent kinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic, Dac-
tylic, Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their
structure.
5. Ictus. In every foot the long syllable naturally receives the
greater prominence. This prominence is called ictus. ^ It is denoted
thus : /_ Kj \j \ /-\j.
6. Thesis and Arsis. The syllable which receives the ictus is
called the thesis ; the rest of the foot is called the arsis.
7. Elision. Final syllables ending in avowel, a diphthong, or -m
are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. In
reading, we ordinarily omit the elided syllable entirely. Probably the
ancients slurred the words together in some way. This may be indi-
cated as follows : corpore in lino ; multum ille et ; monstrum hor-
rendum ; causae irarum.
a. Omission of elision is called hiatus. It occurs especially before and
after monosyllabic Interjections ; as, O et praesidium.
1 Ictus was not accent, — neither stress accent nor musical accent, — but was
simply tne quantitative prominence inherent in a long syllable.
244 Prosody.
8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a caesura {cutting).
Every verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word
and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis.
9. Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. A Cata-
lectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one
or more syllables ; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete.
10. At the end of a verse a slight pause occurred. Hence the final
syllable may be either long or short (syllaba anceps), and may ter-
minate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with
a vowel.
1 1 . Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated
as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the 7mmber of dipodies
(pairs of feet) which they contain. Dactylic verses are measured by
single feet, and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter,
accordingly.
SPECIAL PECULIARITIES.
367. I . Synizesis (Synaeresis) . Two successive vowels in the
interior of a word are often united into a long syllable ; as, —
aureis, deinde, anteire, deesse.
2. Diastole. A syllable usually short is sometimes long; as, —
videt, audit.
3. Systole. A syllable usually long is sometimes short ; as, —
steterunt.
a. Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. They
usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed
out of vogue in the ordinary speech.
4. After a consonant, ,i and u sometimes become j and v. The
preceding syllable then becomes long; as, —
abjete for abiete ; genva for genua.
5. Sometimes v becomes u ; as, —
silua for silva ; dissoluo for dissolve.
6. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. Such a verse is
called an Hypermeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or
-m, and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by
Syuapheia. Thus : —
ignari hominumque locorumque"^
erramus.
Verse- Structure. 245
7. Tmesis {cutting). Compound words are occasionally separated
into their elements ; as, —
quo me cunque rapit tempestas, for quocunque, etc.
8. Syncope. A short vowel is sometimes dropped between two
consonants ; as, —
repostus for repositus.
THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.
368. I. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse,
consists theoretically of six dactyls. But in all the feet
except the fifth a spondee ( ) may take the place of
the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a
trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either
long or short (syllaba anoeps). The following represents
the scheme of the verse : —
2. Sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot. Such verses are
called Spondaic. A dactyl usually stands in the fourth place, and the
fifth and sixth feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable ; as, —
armatumque auro circumspicit Oriona
cara deum suboles, magnum Jovis incrementum.
3. Caesura.
a) The favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic Hexam-
eter is affer the thesis of the third foot ; as, —
arma vit*umque cano || Trojae qui primus ab oris.
b) Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the
fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second
foot ; as, —
Inde toro || pater Aeneas || sic orsus ab alto est.
c) Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syl-
lables of the third foot ; as, —
O pass! graviora || dabit deus his quoque finem.
This caesura is called Feminine as opposed to the caesura
after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under a
and h).
246 Prosody.
d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot.
This is called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by
the Romans from the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks. Thus : —
solstitium pecori defendite ; || jam venit aestas.
DACTYLIC PENTAMETER.
369. I. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts,
each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long
syllable. Spondees may take the place of the dactyls
in the first part, but not in the second. The long syllable
at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a
word. The scheme is the following: —
2. The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with
the Hexameter. The two arranged alternately form the so-called Ele-
giac Distich. Thus : —
Vergilium vidi tantum, nee amara TibuUo
Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.
IAMBIC MEASURES.
370. I. The most important Iambic verse is the Iambic
Trimeter (§ 366, ii) called also Senarius. This is an acata-
lectic verse. It consists of six Iambi. Its pure form is : —
W \J W W \J \J
Beatus ille qui procul negotiis.
The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot ; less fre-
quently in the fourth.
2. In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach (www) may stand in any
Ibot but the last. In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a
Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last two are less frequent.
Sometimes a Proceleusmatic (w w w w) occurs.
3. In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great free-
dom is permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, viz.
the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely
admitted in any foot except the last.
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
I. JULIAN CALENDAR.
371. I . The names of the Roman months are :
rius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Julius (Quintilis i prior to
46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilisi before the Empire), September, Octo-
ber, November, December. These words are properly Adjectives
in agreement with mensis understood.
2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month : —
a) The Calends, the first of the month.
b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh
in March, May, July, and October.
c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fif-
teenth in March, May, July, and October.
3. From these points dates were reckoned backward ; consequently
all days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days
before the Calends of the month next following.
4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is
designated as pridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus. The second day be-
fore was designated as die tertio ante Kalendas, Nonas, etc. Simi-
larly the third day before was designated as die quarto, and so on.
These designations, of course, are aritiimetically inaccurate, but the
Romans reckoned both ends of the series.
5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form
of an Adjective agreeing with Kalendas, NonSs, Idus. Various forms
of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common : —
a) die quinto ante Idus Martias ;
b) quinto ante Idiis Martias ;
c) quinto (V) Idiis Martias ;
d^ ante diem quintum (V) Idiis Martias.
1 Originally the Roman year began with March. This explains the names
Quintilis, Sextilis, September, etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc.
247
248
Supplements to the Grammar.
6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with
the prepositions in, ad, ex ; as, —
ad ante diem IV Kalendas Octobres, up to the iWi of SepieiJiber.
ex ante diem quintum Idus Octobres, yr^w the nth of October.
7. In leap year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February.
The 24th was designated as ante diem VI Kalendas Martias, and
the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal. Mart.
372.
CALENDAR.
Days
of the
Month.
March, May, July,
October.
January, August,
December.
April, June, Sep-
tember, November.
February.
I
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
2
VI. N5nas.
IV. Nonas.
IV. Nonas.
IV. Nonas.
3
V.
III.
III.
III.
4
IV.
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
5
III.
NONlS.
NONis.
NoNis.
6
Pridie Nonas.
VIII. Idus.
VIII. Idiis.
VIII. Idns.
7
N5nIs.
VII.
VII.
VII.
8
VIII. Idas.
VI.
VI.
VI.
9
VII.
V.
V.
V.
10
VI.
IV.
IV.
IV.
II
V.
III.
III.
III.
12
IV.
Pridie Idus.
Pridie Idiis.
Pridie Idiis.
13
III.
IDIBUS.
IDIBUS.
IDIBUS.
14
Pridie Idiis.
XIX. Kalend.
XVIII. Kalend.
XVI. Kalend.
IS
IDIBUS.
XVIII.
XVII.
XV.
16
XVII. Kalend.
XVII.
XVI.
XIV.
17
XVI.
XVI.
XV.
XIII.
18
XV.
XV.
XIV.
XII.
19
XIV.
XIV.
XIII.
XI.
20
XIII.
XIII.
XII.
X.
21
XII.
XII.
XI.
IX.
22
XI.
XI.
X.
VIII.
23
X.
X.
IX.
VII.
24
25
26
IX.
VIII.
VII.
IX.
VIII.
VII.
VIII.
VII.
VI.
VI.
V. (VI.) '■
IV. (V.) "
27
28
VI.
V.
VI.
V.
V.
IV.
III. (IV.) ••
Prid.Kal.dll.Kal.)
29
30
31
IV.
III.
Pridie Kalend.
IV.
III.
Pridie Kalend.
III.
Pridie Kalend.
(Prid. Kal.)
(Enclosed forms are
for leap-year )
Figiii'es of Syntax. 249
II. ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES.
373. A. = Aulus. Mam. = Mamercus.
App. = Appius. N. = Numerius.
C. = Gaius. P. = Publius.
Cn. = Gnaeus. Q. — Quintus.
D. = Decimus. Sex. = Sextus.
K. = Kaeso. Ser. = Servius.
L. = Lucius. • Sp. = Spurius.
M. = Marcus. T. = Titus.
M\=Manius. Ti. = Tiberius.
III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.
A. Figures of Syntax.
374. I . Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words ; as, —
sed enim. audierat, but {she was afraid)., for she had heard, etc.
2. Brachylogy is a brief or condensed form of expression; as, —
ut ager sine cultura fructuosus esse non potest, sic sine doc-
trina animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultiva-
tion, so the mind (camiot be productive') without learning. '
Special varieties of Brachylogy are —
a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two ; as, — *
minis aut blandlmentis corrupta, = {terrified) by threats
,or corrupted by flattery.
b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an
object is mentioned instead of the object itself; as, —
dissimilis erat Chares eorum et factis et moribus, lit.
Chares was different fro7n their co7iduct a7id character,
i.e. Chares's conduct and character were different, etc.
3. Pleonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression; as, —
prius praedicam, lit. I will first say in advance.
4. Hendladys (eV 8ta Svotv, one through two) is the use of two
nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a
Genitive or an Adjective ; as, —
febris et aestus, the heat of fever ;
celeritate cursuque, by swift running.
250 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric.
5. Prol^psis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet
in advance of the action which makes it appropriate : as, —
submersas obrue puppes, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships,
i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships.
a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a
noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we
should expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause.
Thus : —
nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow
Marcellus is (lit. you know Marcellus, how slow he is).
Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry.
6. Anacoltithon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the con-
struction of the sentence ; as, —
turn Anci filii . . . impensius eis indignitas crescere, then the sons
of Ancus . . . their indignation increased all the more.
7. Hysteron Prdteron consists in the inversion of the logical
order of two words or phrases ; as, —
moriamur et in media arma ruamus = let us rush into the midst of
arms and die.
B. Figures of Rhetoric.
375. I. Litotes is the use of two negatives for an emphatic
affirmative; as, —
baud parum laboris, no little toil {i.e. much toil) ;
non ignoro, I am not ignorant {i.e. I am well aware).
2. Oxymdron is the combination of contradictory concep-
tions : as, — • . _ _ _ . • jr n
' sapiens insania, wise folly.
3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words
presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial);
as, sensim sine sensu aetas senescit.
4. Onomatopoeia is the suiting of sound to sense ; as, —
quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum, ^Afid shake
with horny hoofs the solid ground.''
INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE
MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
Note. — Compounds are not given unless they present some special irregularity. The
references are to sections.
A.
abdo, 122, I, 2.
abicio, 122, III.
abnuo, 122, 11.
aboleo, 121, I.
absterged. 121, III.
absum, 125.
accendo, 122, I, 4.
accidit, 138, III.
accio, 121, I, N.
accipiS, 122, III.
acquTro, 122, I, 6.
acuo, 122, 11.
addo, 122, I, 2.
adhaeresco, 122, IV, 2.
adiplscor, 122, V.
adolesco, 122, IV, i.
adsum, 125.
advenio, 123, IV.
affero, 129.
afificio, 122, III.
affligo, 122, I, I, a.
agnosco, 122, IV, i.
ago, 122, I, 3.
algeo, 121, III.
.alo, 122, I, 5.
amicio, 123, III.
amo, 120, I.
amplector, 122, V.
ango, 122, I, 7.
aperio, 123, II.
appeto, 122, I, 6.
arceo, 121, II, a.
arcesso, 122, I, 6.
ardeo, 121, III.
aresco, 122, IV, 2.
arguo, 122, II.
ascendo, 122, I, 4.
aspicio, 122, III.
assentior, 123, VII.
assuefacio, 122, III.
assuefio, 122, III.
audio, 123, I.
aufero, 129.
augeo, 121, III.
aveo, 121, II, a, N. 2.
C.
cado, 122, I, 2.
caedo, 122, I, 2.
calefacio, 122, III.
caleflo, 122, III.
caleo, 121, II, a.
calesco, 122, IV, 2.
cano, 122, I, 2.
capesso, 122, I, 6.
capio, 122, III.
careo, 121, II, a.
carpo, 122, 1,1, a.
caveo, 121, V.
cedo, 122, I, I, b.
censeo, 121, II, b.
cerno, 122, I, 6.
cieo, 121, I.
cingo, 122, I, I, a.
circumsisto, 122, I, 2.
claudo, 122, I, I, b.
claudo, 122, I, 7.
coemo, 122, I, 3.
coepi, 133.
coerceo, 121, II, a.
cognosco, 122, IV, I.
cogo, 122, I, 3.
colligo, 122, I, 3.
251
COlo, 122, I, 5.
comminTscor, 122, V.
comperio, 123, V.
compleo, 121, I.
concutio, 122, III.
condo, 122, I, 2.
conlero, 129.
confiteor, 121, VII.
congruo, 122, 11,
consenesco, 122, IV, 2.
consero, 122, I, 5.
consero, 122, I, 6 {plant),
consldo, 122, I, 4.
consists, 122, I, 2.
conspicio, 122, III,
constat, 138, III.
constituo, 122, II.
consuesco, 122, IV, i,
consulo, 122, I, 5.
contineo, 121, II, b.
contingit, 138, III.
coquo, 122, I, I, a.
crepo, 120, II.
cresco, 122, IV, i.
cubo, 120, II.
cupio, 122, III.
curro, 122, I, 2.
debeo, 121, II, a.
decerno, 122, I, 6.
decet, 138, II.
dedecet, 138, II.
dedo, 122, I, 2.
defendo, 122, I, 4.
deleo, 121, I.
deligo, 122, I, 3.
252
Index to the Principal Parts
demo, 122, I, 3.
desero, 122, I, 5.
desino, 122. I, 6.
desum, 125.
dico, 122, I, I, a,
diffeio, 129.
diligo, 122, I, 3.
dimico, 120, II.
dirimo, 122, I, 3.
diripio, 122, III.
diruo, 122, II.
discerns, 122, I, 6.
disco, 122, IV, I.
dissero, 122, I, 5.
distinguo, p. 87, footnote.
divid5, 122, I, I, b.
do, 127.
doceo, 121, II, b.
doleo, 121, II, a.
domo, 120, II.
dQco. 122. I. I. a.
edo, 122, I, 2.
edo, 122, I, 3.
effero, 129.
effugio, 122, III.
egeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
elicio, 122, III.
emineo, 121, II, a, N. i.
emo, 122, I, 3.
eo, 132.
esurio, 123, VI.
evado, p. 87, footnote,
evanesco, 122, IV, 3.
excolo, 122, I, 5.
excud5, 122, I, 4.
exerceo, 121, II, a.
experior, 123, VII.
expleo, 121, I, N.
explic5, 120, II.
exstinguo, p. 87, footnote,
extimesco, 122, IV, 2.
F.
faciS, 122, III.
fallo, 122, I, 2.
fateor, 121, VII.
faveo, 121, V.
ferio, 123, VI.
tfTO. 129.
The references are to sections.
ferveo, 121, VI.
figo, 122, I, I, b.
findo, 122, I, 2, N.
fingo, 122, I, I, a.
flo, 131.
flecto, 122, I, I, b.
fieo, 121, I.
fioreo, 121, II, a, N. 1.
fluo, 122, II.
floresco, 122, IV, 2.
fodio, 122, III.
foveo, 121, V.
frangS, 122, I, 3.
fremo, 122, I, 5.
frico, 120, II.
frigeo, 121, II, a, N. 2.
fruor, 122, V.
fugio, 122, III.
fulcio, 123, III.
fulgeo, 121, III.
fulget, 138, I.
fundo, 122, I, 3.
fungor, 122, V.
furo, 122, I, 7.
G.
gemo, 122, I, 5.
gero, 122, I, I, a.
glgno, 122, I, 5.
gradior, 122, V.
H.
habeo, 121, II, a.
haereo, 121, III.
haurio, 123, III.
horreo, 121, II, a, N. i.
I.
ignosco, 122, IV, I.
illicio, 122, III.
imbuo, 122, II.
immineo, 121, II, a, N. 2.
impleo, 121, I, N.
implies, 120, II.
incipi5, 122, III.
incolo, 122, I, 5.
incumbo, 122, I, 5.
indulged, 121, HI.
indu5, 122, II
infero, 129.
ingemlsco, 122, IV, 2.
insum, 125.
intellego, 122, I, 3.
interficio, 122, III.
intersum, 125.
invado, p. 87, footnote,
invenio, 123, IV.
Irascor, 122, V.
J.
jaceo, 121, II, a.
jacio, 122, III.
jubeo, 121, III.
jungo, 122, I, I, a,
juvo, 120, III.
L.
labor, 122, V.
lacesso, 122, I, 6.
laedo, 122, I, I, b.
lambo, 122, I, 7.
largior, 123, VII.
lateo, 121, II, a, N. i.
lavo, 120, III.
lego, 122, I, 3.
libet, 138, II.
liceor, 121, VII.
licet, 138, II.
loquor, 122, V.
luceo, 121, III.
ludo, 122, I, I, b.
lugeo, 121, III.
luo. 122. II.
M.
maereo, 121, II, a, N. 2.
malo, 130.
maneo, 121, III.
matiiresco, 122, IV, 3.
medeor, 121, VII.
memini, 133.
mereo, 121, II, a.
mereor, 121, VII.
mergo, 122, I, i, b.
metior, 123, VII.
metuS, 122, II.
mico, 120, II.
minuo, 122, II.
misceo, 121, II, b.
of the Most Important Verbs.
253
miseret, 138, 11.
misereor, 121, VII.
mitto, 122, I, I, b.
molo, 122, I, 5.
moneo, 121, II, a.
mordeo, 121, lY.
morior, 122, V.
moveo, 121, V.
nanciscor, 122. V.
nascor, 122, V.
necto, 122, I, I, b.
neglego, 122, I, 3.
ningit, 138, I.
niteo, 121, II, a, N. i.
nitor, 122, V.
noceo, 121, II, a,
nolo, 130.
nosco, 122, IV, I,
nubo, 122, I, I, a.
Q.
obduresco, 122, IV, 3.
oblino, 122, I, 6.
obliviscor, 122, V.
obmutesco, 122, IV, 3.
obruo, 122, II.
obsolesco, 122, IV, i.
obsum, 125.
obtineo, 121, II, b.
odi, 133.
offero, 129.
oleo, 121, II, a, N. I.
operio, 123, II.
oportet, 138, II.
opperior, 123, VII.
ordior, 123, VII.
orior, 123, VI L
paenitet, 138, II.
palleo, 121, II, a, W. i.
pando, 122, I, 4.
parco, 122, I, 2.
pareo, 121, II, a.
pario, 122, III.
pasco, 122, IV, I.
pascor, 122, 4V, t.
The references are to sections.
patefacio, 122, III.
pateflo, 122, III.
pateo, 121, II, a, N. i.
patior, 122, V.
paveo, 121, V.
pellicio, 122, III.
pello, 122, I, 2.
pendeo, 121, IV.
pendo, 122, I, 2.
perago, 122, I, 3.
percello, 122, I, 2. N.
percrebresco, 122, IV, 3.
perdo, 122, I, 2.
perficio, 122, III.
perfringo, 122, I, 3.
perfruor, 122, V.
perlego, 122, I, 3.
permulceo, 121, III.
perpetior, 122, V.
peryado, p. 87, footnote.
peto, 122, I, 6.
piget^ 138, II.
pingo, 122, I, I, a.
placeo, 121, II, a.
plaudo, 122, I, I, b.
pluit, 138, I.
poUeo, 121, II, a, N. 2.
poUiceor, 121, VII.
polluo, 122, II.
pono, 122, I, 6.
posco, 122, IV, I.
possido, 122, I, 4.
possum, 126.
poto, 120, I.
praebeo, 121, II, a.
praestat, 138, III.
praesum, 125.
prandeo, 121, VI.
prehendo, 122, I, 4.
premo, 122, I, i, b.
prodo, 122, I, 2.
promo, IC2, I, 3.
prosum, 125.
prosterno, 122, I, 6.
pudet, 138, II.
pungo, 122, I, 2.
R.
rado, 122, I, I, b.
rapio, 122, III.
reddo, 122, I, 2.
redimo, 122, I, 3.
refercio, 123, III.
refero, 129.
refert, 138, II.
rego, 122, I, I, a.
relinquo, 122, I, 3.
reminlscor, 122, V.
reor, 121, VII.
reperio, 123 V.
repo, 122, i, I, a.
resisto, 122, I, 2.
respuo, 122, II.
restinguo, p. 87, footnote,
retineo, 121, II, b.
rldeo, 121, III.
rodo, 122, I, I, b.
rubeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
rumpo, 122, I, 3.
ruo, 122, II.
quaero, 122, I, 6.
quatio, 122, III.
queror, 122, V.
quiesco, 122, iV. i.
saepio, 123, III.
salio, 123, II.
sancio, 123, III.
sapio, 122, III.
sarcio, 123, III.
scindo, 122, I, 2, N.
sclsco, 122, IV, 2.
scribo, 122, I, I, a.
sculpo, 122, I, I, a.
seco, 120, II.
sedeo, 121, V.
sentio, 123, III.
sepelio, 123, I.
sequor, 122, V.
sero, 122, I, 6.
serpo, 122, I, I, a.
sileo, 121, II, a, N. ,
sino, 122, I, 6.
solvo, 122, I, 4.
sono, 120, II.
spargo, 122, I, I, b.
sperno, 122, I, 6.
splendeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
spondeo, 121, IV.
statuo, 122, II.
sterno, 122, I, 6.
-stinguo, 122, I, I, a.
254
Index to the Most Important Verbs.
strepo, 122, I, 5.
strideo, 121, VI.
stringo, 122, I, 1, a.
struo, 122, II.
studeo, 121, II, a, N.
suadeo, 121, III.
subigo, 122, I, 3.
subsum, 125.
sum, 100.
sumo, 122, I, 3.
suo, 122, II.
supersum, 125.
sustineo, 121, II, b.
T.
taceo, 121, II, a.
taedet, 138, II.
tango, 122, I, 2.
tego, 122, I, I, a.
temno, 122, I, i, a.
tendo, 122, I, 2.
teneo, 121, II, b.
tero, 122, I, 6.
terreo, 121, II, a.
The references are to sections.
texo, 122, I, 5.
timeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
tingo, 122, I, I, a.
tollo, 122, I, 2, N.
tonat, 138, I.
tondeo, 121, IV.
tono, 120, II.
torpeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
torqueo, 121, III.
torreo, 121, II, b.
trado, 122, I, 2.
traho, 122, I, I, a.
tremo, 122, I, 5.
tribuo, 122, II.
trudo, 122, I, I, b.
tueor, 121, VII.
tundo, 122, I, 2.
U.
ulcTscor, 122, V.
unguo, 122, I, I, <2.
urgeo, 121, III.
uro, 122, I, I, a.
utor. 122. V.
V.
vado, 122, \,\,b,
valeo, 121, II, a.
veho, 122, I, I, a.
vello, 122, I, 4.
venio, 123, IV,
vereor, 121, VII.
vergo, 122, I. 7.
verro, 122, I, 4.
verto, 122, I, 4.
vescor, 122, V.
veto, 120, II.
video, 121, V.
vigeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
vincio, 123, III.
vinco, 122, I, 3.
vireo, 121, II, a, N. i.
viso, 122, I, 4.
vivo, 122, I, I, a.
volo, 130.
volvo, 122, I, 4.
vomo, 122, I, 5.
voveo, 121, V.
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
A.
-a, ending of nom. sing., ist decl., 20;
for e in Greek nouns, 22, i.
a, ab, abs, use, 142, i ; with town names,
229, 2.
a to denote agency, 216.
to denote separation, 214.
with town names, 229, 2.
-a- stems, 20.
Abbreviations of proper names, 373.
Ablative case, 17 ; 213 f.
formation of sing, of adjs. of 3d
decl., 67, a ; 70, 1-5.
genuine abl. uses, 214 f.
absolute, 227.
of agent, 216.
of accompaniment, 222.
of accordance, 220, 3.
of attendant circumstance, 221 ;
227, 2, e).
of cause, 219.
of comparison, 217.
of degree of difference, 223.
of fine, 208, 2, b.
of manner, 220.
of means, 218.
of penalty, 208, 2, b.
of place where, 228.
of place whence, 229.
of price, 225.
of quality, 224.
of separation, 214.
of source, 215.
of specification, 226.
of time at which, 230.
of time during which, 231, i.
of time within which, 231.
of way by which, 2i3, 9.
^'\Xh/aci5,/td, 218, 6.
2
Ablative case, with prepositions, 142
213 f.
with verbs of filling, 218, 8.
with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8.
abs, 142, I.
absens, 125.
Absolute ablative, 227.
time, of participles, 336, 4.
use of verbs, 174, a.
Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b) ; 55, 4,
-abus, 21, 2, e).
ac, 341, 2, b) ; = as, than, 341, i
Acatalectic verses, 366, 9.
Accent, 6 ; in gen. of nouns in
-ium, 25, I and 2.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 222.
Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3.
Accusative case, 17 ; 172 f.
of duration of time, 181.
of result produced, 173, B
of extent of space, 181.
of limit of motion, 182 f.
of person or thing affected, 173, A\
175.
in exclamations, 183.
as subj. of inf., 184.
with adv. force, 176, 3.
with compounds, 175, 2.
with passive used as middle, 175,
•2,d).
cognate ace, 176, 4.
Greek ace, 180.
synecdochical ace, 180.
two aces., direct obj. and pred. ace,
177 ; person affected and result pro-
duced, 178; with compounds o{ trans,
179; with other compounds, 179, 2;
with prepositions. 141 ; 179 f.
retained in pass., 178, 2.
Accusing, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
c).
c).
-ius and
176.
55
256
General Index.
The references are to
accuso, constr., 178, 1, d).
deer, 68.
Acquitting, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
ac SI, 307, I.
ad, ' toward,' ' in vicinity of,' 182, 3.
-ades, 148, 6, a.
adg- = agg-, 9, 2.
Adjectives, 62 f . ; 354; derivation of,
150 f.
of 1st and 2d decl., 63 ff.
in -ius, gen. sing., 63, a.
of 3d decl., 67 ff. ; in abl., 70, 5.
comparison of adjs., 71 f. ; in -er,
71, 3; in -His, 71, 4; comparative
lacking, 73, 3; defective comparison,
73; not admitting comparison, 75;
comparison by tnagis and mdxime, 74.
numerals, 78 f.
syntax, 233 ff.
agreement, 234 f.
used substantively, 236 f.
denoting part of an object, 241, i.
with force of adverbs, 239.
force of comp. and superl., 240, i.
not followed by infinitive, 333.
not used with proper names, 354, 3.
equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4.
special Latin equivalents of Eng.
adjs., 354, I.
equiv. to rel. clause, 241, 2.
as pred. ace, 177, 2.
position of adj., 350, 4.
adl- = all-, 9, 2.
admoneo, constr., 207.
adr- = arr-, 9, 2.
ads- = ass-, 9, 2.
ad sensujH, constr., 235, B,2, c\ 254, 4.
adiilescens, 9, 2.
adulter, decl., 23, 2.
adult us, 114, 2.
Adverbs, formation and comparison,
76 f. ; 140, 157.
in -iter from adjs. in -us, yj, 4.
tzis and -tim, 77, 5.
in -0, yj, 2.
numeral, 79.
as preps., 144, 2.
derivation df, 157.
special meanings, 347.
position, 350, 6.
Adversative clauses, 309.
conjunctions, 343.
aedes, 61.
sections and paragraphs.
aequor, decl, 34.
aequum est, 271, i, ^).
«'?-^._57. 7-
aetas, decl., 40, i, e) ; id aetdtis, 185, 2.
-aeus, 152, 3.
aevotu, 24.
Agency, dat. of, 189 ; abl., 216.
Agent, abl., 216.
ager, decl., 23.
-di, case-ending, gen. sing., ist decl.,
poet., 21, 2, b).
ain, 135, N.
ajo, 135.
alacer, comp., 73, 4.
aliqua, 91, 2.
aliqui, 91 ; 91, 2.
aliquis, 91 ; 252, 2 ; aliquis dicat, dlxerit,
280, I.
-dlis, 151, 2.
alius, 66 ; 92, 1 ; used correlatively, 253, i.
alius ac, 341, \, c).
Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N.
allicid, 109, 2, b).
Alliteration, 375, 3.
Alphabet, i.
alter, 66 ; 92, i ; used correlatively,
253. I-
Alternative questions, 162, 4; indirect,
300, 4.
alteruter, 92, 2.
alvus, gender of, 26, i, b).
ama>idus sum, 115.
amdturus sum, 115.
ambo, 80, 2, a; 355, 2.
amo, loi.
amplius — amplius quam, 217, 3.
an, 162, 4, and a) ; 300, 4; haud scio an,
nescio an, 300, 5.
Anacoluthon, 374, 6.
Anapaest, 366, 2.
Anaphora, 350, 11, <5).
Anastrophe of prep., 141, 2; 142, 3;
144. 3-
anceps {syllaba anceps) , 366, 10.
Afzdrogeos, dec]., 27.
animal, decl., 39.
anim'i, 232, 3.
annbn, 162, 4.
Answers, 162, 5.
ante in expressions of time, 144, i ; 357, i.
Antecedent of rel, 251.
attraction of, 251, 4.
incorporated with rel, 251, 4.
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
257
Antecedent omitted, 251, i.
repeated with rel., 251, 3.
Antepenult, 6, 2.
antequam, with ind., 291 ; with subjv.,
292.
Anticipation, 374, 5.
-anus, 151, 2; 152, i; 3.
Aorist tense, see Historical perfect.
Apodosis, 301.
in conditional sent, of ist type,
302, 4.
Apposition, 169 ; partitive, 169, 5 ; with
voc. in nom., 171, 2; genitive, 202.
Appositive of locative, 169, 4; with ace.
of limit of motion, 182, 2, a\ with
town names in abl. of place whence,
229, 2.
position of, 350, 2.
Arch I as, 22.
arguo, constr., 178, i, <a?).
-aris, 151, 2.
-arium, 148, 3.
-arius, 151, 2.
armiger, decl., 23, 2.
Arsis, 366, 6.
arx, decl,, 40,
-as, old Gen. sing., ist decl., case-ending,
21, 2, a).
ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing.
in, 22.
atis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c).
Aspirates, 2, 3, c).
Assimilation of consonants, 8, 4 f. ; 9, 2.
Asyndeton, 341, 4, a) ; 346.
a/, 343, I, d).
-atim, 157, 2.
atomus, gender of, 26, i, c).
atque, 341, 2., b)\ = as, 341, i, c).
atqu'i, 343, I, ^).
Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 221 ;
227, 2, e).
Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5 ; of
relatives, 250, 5 ; subjunctive by at-
traction, 324; of adjectives, 327, 2, a\
328, 2.
audeo, 114, i.
audio, 107 ; with pres. partic, 337, 3.
aut, 342, I, a).
autem, 343, i, c) ; 350, 8.
Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, 5.
auxiliurn, auxilia, 61.
-dx, 150, 2,
B.
balneum, balneae, 60, 2.
barbitos, decl., 27.
belli, 232, 2.
bellum, decl., 23.
^i?«^, comparison, 77, i.
benevolens, 71, 5, a).
biJHgis, 362, 4.
-<J///j-, 150, 4.
bonus, 63 ; comDp.rison, 72.
<^(9J-, 41.
Brachylogy, 374, 2.
Bucolic diaeresis, 368, 3, d.
-bulum, 147, 4.
-bundus, 150, I.
c.
caedes, decl., 40.
Caesura, 366, 8 ; in dactylic hexameter,
368, 3.
calcar, decl., 39.
Calendar, 371 ; 372.
Calends, 371, 2, a),
canis, 38, 2.
cap id, no.
carbasus, gender of, 26, i, ^).
career, car ceres, 61.
Cardinals, 78, i ; 79 ; 81, i ; decl., 80.
card, 42.
carrus, carrum, 60, i.
Cases, 17; alike in form, 19; 170 ff.
Case-endings, 17, 3.
castrum, castra, 61.
Catalectic verses, 366, 9.
causa, nulla causa est cur, etc., 295, 7.
Causal clauses, 285 ; 286 ; clause of
characteristic with accessory notion of
cause, 283, 3.
conjunctions, 345.
causa, with gen., 198, i.
Cause, abl. of, 219; 227, 2, d).
cave, 363, 2, b).
cave ne in prohibitions, 276, c.
-ce, 6, 3 f. ; 87, footnote 2.
cedo, cette, 137, 3.
celer, 68, 2.
celo, constr., 178, i, e).
cenatus, 114, 2.
cetera, 185, 2.
ceteri, 253, 4.
Characteristic, clauses of, 283 ; gen. of,
203, I ; abl., 224.
258
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs
Chiasmus, 350, 11, c).
circumdo, constr., 187, i, a.
citerior, 73, i.
cito, 77, 2, a.
civitas, decl., 40, i, e.
clam, 144, 2.
Clauses, coord, and subord., 164, 165.
Clauses of characteristic, 283; purpose,
282; result, 284; causal, 285; temporal
with postquayn, ut, ubi, simul ac, etc.
287; with cmn, 288 ; substantive
clauses, 294 f. ; condition, 301 f . ; con-
cessive. 308; adversative, 309; wish
or proviso, 310; relative, 311 f.; 283 f.
clipeus, clipeum, 60, i.
Close of sentences, cadences used, 350,
12.
coept, 133 ; coeptiis est, 133, i.
Cognate ace, 176, 4.
cogo, 178, I, d) ; 331, VI.
Collective nouns, 12, 2, a),
colus, gender of, 26, i, b).
comedo, 128, 2.
cometes, 22.
comitia, 230, I.
Common gender, 15, B, N. i.
nouns, 12, I.
vowels, 5, A, 2, N.
syllables, 5, B, 3.
conunonefacio, 207.
commoneo, 207.
communis, with gen., 204, 2; with dat.
204, 2, a.
Comparison of adjs., 71 f.
participles as adjs., 71, 2,
adjs. in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, 71, 5.
defective, 73.
abl. of, 217.
Comparatives, occasional meaning, 240.
, two required in Latin, 240, 4.
Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, b).
Compounds, 158 f. ; separation into syl-
lables, 4, 4 ; spelling of, 9, 2.
Compound sentences, 164.
Conative uses of pres., 259, 2 ; of imperf.,
260, 3 ; of pres. partic, 336, 2, a.
Concessive clauses, 308 ; ' although ' as
accessory idea to clause of character-
istic, 283, 3.
subjunctive, 278.
Conclusion, see Apodosis.
Concrete nouns, 12, 2, a).
Condemning, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
Conditional clauses of comparison, 307.
sentences, ist type, 302; in indir.
disc, 319 ; 2d type, 303 ; in indir. disc,
320; 3d type, 304; in indir. disc, 321 ;
abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, b) ; in-
troduced by relative pronouns, 312.
cd?ifldd, 219, I, a.
Conjugation, 11; 93 f. ; the four conju-
gations, 98; periphrastic, 115; pecul-
iarities of conj., 116.
Conjunctions, 341 f.
Conor, with inf., 295, 5, a.
Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses.
consistere, with abl., 218, 4.
Consonant stems, 29 f.
partially adapted \o j-stems, 40.
Consonants, 2, 2 f. ; 3, 3.
, double, 2, 9.
combinations of, in division into
syllables, 4, 2 f.
Consonant changes, 8; omission of fi-
nals, 8, 3 ; assimilation of, 8, 4 f.
stems, 29 ; following analogy of it-
stems, 40.
conspicio, 109, 2, b).
cons tare, 218, 4.
Construction ace. to sense, 254, 4; 235,
B, 2, c).
consifetudo est, with substantive clause,
297. 3-
consuevl = pres., 262, A.
Contending, verbs of, with dat., 358, 3.
contentus, 219, i.
contmerl, with abl., 218, 4.
cofitrd, 144, I.
Contraction, 7, 2.
length of vowel as result of, 5, A,
I, b).
Convicting, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
Coordinate clauses, 165.
conjunctions, 341 f.
copia, copiae, 61.
Copulative conjunctions, 341.
cor, 57, 7.
cornu, decl., 48.
Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3; 342, 2,
adverbs, 140.
cott'idie, 9, 2.
-crum, 147, 4.
-culum, 147, 4.
-cuius {a, urn), 148, I.
cum, appended, 142, 4.
cum, ' when,' 288-290.
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
259
c«?«, adversative, 309, 3.
causal, 286, 2.
explicative, 290. ^k
to denote a recurring action, 288, 3 ;
289, a.
' when suddenly," 288, 2.
, with abl. of manner, 220; with abl.
of accompaniment, 222.
cujri . . . turn, 290, 2.
cum prlmum, 287, i.
cum, spelling of, 9, i.
-cundus, 150, I.
cupio, 109, 2, a) ; 331, IV, and a.
cur, nulla causa est cur, 295, 7.
Dactyl, 366, 2.
Dactylic hexameter, 368.
-- — pentameter, 369.
dap is, 57, 6.
E'ates, 371, 2-5 ; as indeclinable nouns,
371, 6 ; in leap year, 371, 7.
C ative, 17 ; irregular, ist decl, 21, 2, c) ;
3d decl., 47, 5 ; 4th decl., 49, 2; 3; 5th
decl., 52, I and 3 ; 186 ff.
•- — of agency, 189.
of direction, 193.
of indir. obj., 187.
■ of advantage or disadvantage, so
called, 188, I.
of local standpoint, 188, 2, a).
of person judging, 188, 2, c).
of possession, 190; 359, i.
of purpose, 191 ; 339, 7.
of reference, 188.
of separation, 188, 2, d).
with adjs., 192.
with compound verbs, 187, III,
with intrans. verbs, 187, II.
with pass, verbs, 187, II, b.
with trans, verbs, 187, I.
— — with verbs oi mingling, 358, 3.
— - ethical dat., 188, 2, b) .
de, with abl. instead of gen. of whole,
201, I, a.
dea, dedbus, 21, 2, e).
debebatn, debut in apodosis, 304, 3, a),
debut, with pres. inf., 270, 2.
decemvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b).
decet, 175, 2, c).
Declaratory sentences in indir. disc, 314.
Declension, II ; heteroclites, 59.
, stems and gen. terminations, 18.
de decet, 175, 2, t).
Defective verbs, 133 f. ; nouns, 54 f. ; 52,
4; 57; comparison, 73.
Deliberative subjv., 277 ; in indir. disc,
315. 3-
Demonstrative pronouns, 87 ; 246.
Denominative verbs, 156.
Dental mutes, 2, 4.
stems, 33.
Deponent verbs, 112 ; forms with passive
meanings, 112, b) ; semi-deponents,
114.
Derivatives, 147 f.
Desideratives, 155, 3.
deter tor, 73, i.
deus, 25, 4.
devertor, 114, 3.
dextrum, 185, 2.
Diaeresis, 366, 8; bucolic d., 368, 3, d).
Diastole, 367, 2.
die, 1x6, 3.
dicitur, dictum est, 332, note.
died, accent of compounds of, in imper,,
116, 3.
-dicus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.
D'tdb, decl., 47, 8.
dies, decl., 51 ; gender, 53.
Difference, abl. of degree of, 223.
difficile est, 271, i, <J).
difficilis, comp., 71, 4.
dignus, 226, 2 ; in rel. clauses of purpose,
282, 3.
Dimeter verses, 366, 11.
Diminutives, 148, i.
Diphthongs, 2, i ; 3, 2 ; diphthong
stems, 41 ; diphthongs shortened,
362, 2.
diphthongus,gewdex: of, 26, I, c).
Dipodies, 366, 11.
Direct reflexives, 244, i.
object, 172.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 342.
dissitttilis, comp., 71, 4.
Distributives, 78, i; 79; 81, 4.
diu, compared, 77, i.
dives, 70, I.
dJxtl, 116, 4, c.
do, 127.
doceo, with ace, 178, I, b) ; with inf., 331,
VI.
domi, 232, 2.
d0?)t0, 229, I. ^).
domos, 182, I, b.
26o
General Index.
The references are to
donium, 182, i, f)\ 'house,' in ace, 182,
note.
doinus, 49, 4.
donee, with ind., 293; with subjv., 293,
III, 2.
dd/7d, constr., 187, i, a.
Double consonants, 2, 9.
questions, 162, 4 ; indirect, 300, 4.
Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative.
dubito, dubiutn est, constr. with, 298.
due, 116, 3.
dued, accent of compounds of, in imper.,
116, 3.
duim, duint, xorj, 2.
-dum, 6, 3.
dujfi, temporal with ind., 293 ; with subjv.,
293, III, 2; in wishes and provisos,
310.
dummodo, 310.
duo, 80, 2.
duumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, h),
dux, decl., 32.
E.
e, stems, 51.
-e, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing, in,
22; in dat., 5th decl., 52, 3.
-e, abl. of participles in -ans, -ens, in, 70, 3.
e, ex, use, 142, 2.
ecquis, 91, 6.
edic, 116, 3.
edd, 128.
educ, 116, 3.
ego, 84.
egomet, 84, 2.
-el, gen. of 5th decl., 52, i.
-els, 148, 6, i^).
ejus, as poss., 86, i.
Elegiac distich, 369, 2.
Elision, 366, 7.
Ellipsis, 374, I.
-elius (a, «w), 148, I.
Emphasis, 349.
Enclitics, accent of preceding syllable,
6.3.
Endings, personal of verb, 96 ; in forma-
tion of words, 147 f.
enlm, 345.
-ensimus (-ensumus) , 79, N.
-ens is, 151, 2; 152, 3.
eo, 132; cpds., 132, I.
Epexegetical genitive, 202.
Epistolary tenses, 265.
sections and paragraphs.
epistula, 9, 2.
epif07ne, 22.
epim^n, epulae, 60, 2.
equabus, 21, 2, ^).
equos, 24.
-(?r, decl. of nouns in, 23.
^r^^,344, I, <J).
-emus, 154.
-^j, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sin^.
in, 22.
, gen. -is, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, a^
esse, 100; omitted, 116, 5.
est qui, with subj., 283, 2.
et, 341, I, a ; in enumerations, 341, 4, c).
et is, 247, 4.
et . . . neque, 341, 3.
Ethical dative, 188, 2, <5).
etiam, in answers, 162, 5.
et non, 341, 2, t).
^r/jz, 'although,' 309, 2; <»/j7, 'even if.'
309, 2, a.
-etu?n, 148, 3.
-<f«j, 151, I.
^jr, 142, 2 ; with abl., instead of gen. oi
whole, 201, I, a; with abl. of source.
215, I.
exposed, constr., 178, i, a),
exsisto, 9, 2.
exspecto, 9, 2.
exterl, exterior, 73, 2.
extrhtius, 241, i.
F.
yat, 116, 3.
facile, 77, 3.
faeilis, comp., 71, 4.
facio, 109, 2, a).
, in imper., 116, 3.
falsus, 73, 3.
fame, 59, 2, <J).
familias, 21, 2, a),
/arz, 136.
ys^. 58.
fauees, decl., 40, i, d).
Fearing, verbs of, constr., 296, 2.
fellx, 70.
Feminine, see Gender.
Feminine caesura, 368, 3, c.
femur, 42, 4.
-fer, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2; adjs., 65, 1.
y^r5, 129.
ferus, 75, 2.
^t«^, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.
General Index.
261
The references are to
yf(/(?J, 362, I, i>.
f'ldb, 114, I.
fido, with abl., 219, i, a.
fidus, 73, 3,
fier em, fieri, 362, i, c).
Fifth decl., 51 f.
Figures of rhetoric, 375.
of syntax, 374.
fil'i, 25. 3-
filia,/Uiabus, 21, 2, e).
Final clauses, see Purpose clauses.
Final consonant omitted, 8, 3.
Final syllables, quantity, 363,364.
finis, fines, 61.
Finite verb, 95.
fid, 131.
fid, with abl., 218, 6.
First conj., loi.
First dec!., 20 f. ; peculiarities, 21.
flagttd, constr., 178, i, a),
fodio, 109, 2, d).
Foot, in verse, 366, 2.
' For,' its Latin equivalents, 358, i.
fore, page 57, footnote 3.
fore ut, 270, 3.
forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote 2.
foris, 'Z'2Z, I, c.
Formation of words, 146 f.
fors, forte, 57, 2, a.
fortior, 69.
fortis, 69.
fortuna, fortunae, 61.
Fourth conj., 107.
Fourth decl., 48 ; dat. in -u, 49, 2 ;
gen. in -i, 49, i ; dat. abl. plu. in -ubus,
49, 3-
fraude, 2.7.0, 2.
frenum, plu. of, 60, 2.
Frequentatives, 155, 2.
fret us, 218, 3.
Fricatives, 2, 7.
fructus, decl., 48.
frugi, compared, 72 ; 70, 6.
frugis, 57, 6.
fiuor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive
constr., 339, 4.
fllgid, 109, 2, fl).
/«J, fuisti, etc., for sum, es, etc., in com-
pound tenses, p. 60, footnote; p. 61,
footnote.
fungor, 218, 1 ; in gerundive constr., 339, 4.
fur, decl., 40, i, d).
fUrto, 220. 2.
sections and paragraphs.
Future tense, 261 ; with imperative force,
261, 3.
time in the subjv,, 269.
perfect, 264 ; with future meaning,
133. 2.
imperative, 281, i.
fliturum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3.
G.
gaudeo, 114, i.
Gender, 13-15 ; in ist dec!., 20, 21 ; in
2d decl., 23; exceptions, 26; in 3d
decl., 43 f. ; in 4th decl., 50; in 5th
decl., 53; determined by endings, 14;
by signification, 15, A ; heterogeneous
nouns, 60.
gener, decl., 23, 2.
Genitive, 17 ; in -I for -ii, 25, i and 2 ; of
4th decl. in -i, 49, i ; of 5th decl. in -i,
52. 2; of 5th decl. in -ei, 52, i; in -e,
52, 3 ; of ist decl. in -di, 21, 2, b) ; of
ist decl. in -as, -zi, 2, a) ; gen. plu. -um
for -aruyn, 21, 2, d) ; -um for -drum,
25,6; gen. plu. lacking, 57, 7 ; syntax
of, 194 f.
of characteristic, 203, i.
of charge with judicial verbs', 208.
of indefinite price, 203, 4.
of indefinite value, 203, 3.
of material, 197.
of measure, 203, 2.
of origin, 196.
of possession, 198.
of quality, 203.
of the whole, 201.
appositional, 202.
objective, 200.
of separation, 212, 3.
subjective, 199,
with adjs., 204; with participles,
204, I, a.
with causa, gratia, 198, I.
with verbs, 205 f. ; of plenty and
want, 212 ; with impers. verbs, 209.
position of gen., 350, i.
genus, decl., 36; id genus, 185, i.
-ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2; adjs., 65, i.
Gerund, 338 ; with object, 338, 5.
Gerundive, 337, 8.
Gerundive const., 339, 1-6 ; in passive
periphrastic conj., 337, 8 f. ; gen. de-
noting purpose, 339, 6: with dat. of
purpose, 19T. 3 ; 339, 7.
262
Genei'al Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
gnZirus, not compared, 75, 2.
Gnomic present, 259, i ; perfect, 262, i.
gradior, 109, 2, c.
Grammatical gender, 15.
gratia, with gen., 198, i ; gratia, gratlae,
61.
Greek nouns, ist decl., 22 ; 2d decl., 27 ;
exceptions in gender, 26, i, c) ; 3d
decl., 47 ; Greek ace, 180 ; Greek nouns
in verse, 365.
grus, decl., 41, 2.
gu=gv,2, 3-
Guttural mutes, 2, 4.
stems, 32.
H.
habed, with perf. pass, partic, 337, 6.
Hadria, 21, i.
Hard consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote i.
haud, use, 347, 2, a; /^a«(/ jc/^ an, 300, 5.
y^^zz^^, 137, 5.
Hendiadys, 374, 4,
/^d?rJ, 232, 2.
Heteroclites, 59.
Heterogeneous nouns, 60.
Hiatus, 366, 7, a.
hie, 87 ; 246, I ; 246, 2.
hie?ns, 35, footnote.
Historical tenses, 258 ; historical present,
259, 3 ; 268, 3 ; historical perfect, 262, B ;
historical infinitive, 335.
honor, decl., 36.
Hortatory subjv., 274.
hortus, decl., 23.
hoscine, 87, footnote 2.
hostis, decl., 38.
hujusce, 87, footnote 2.
humi, •22,'2., 2.
humilis, comp., 71, 4.
humus, gender of, 26, i, <5).
Hyperbaton, 350, 11, a).
Hypermeter, 367, 6.
Hysteron proteron, 374, 7.
I.
i, I, I ; becomes/, 367, 4 ; instead of u in
some words, 9, i.
t-stems, 37 ; 39 ; not always ending in -is,
38,3.
-I, gen. of 2d decl., nouns in -ius and -/«;«
in, 25, I and 2.
gen. of 4th decl., nouns in -us, 49, i,
gen. of 5th decl., nouns, 52, 2.
?-stem, VIS, 41.
/, in abl., 3d decl, 38, i ; 39.
adjs., 67, 3, a ; 70, 5.
participles, 70, 3.
patrials, 70, 5, c).
-la, 149.
Iambus, 366, 2.
Iambic measures, 370.
trimeter, 370.
-ianus, 152, i.
-ias, 148, 6, b^.
-ibam, in imperf., 116, 4, b).
-ibo, in future, 116, 4, <^).
Ictus, 366, 5.
-icus, 151, 2; 152, 2.
?^ aetatis, 185, 2.
id genus, 185, i.
z<^ temp or is, 185, 2.
Zi^ ^«(9<f, 247, I, ^.
Ideal 'you,' see Indefinite second per-
son.
idem, 87; 248.
idem ac, 248, 2.
Ides, 371, 2, <;).
-J^.?i', 148, 6, a).
-ji/(?j, 148, 6, a).
-idd, 147, 3, t).
tdoneus, with rel. clause of purpose,
282,3.
-idus, 150, 3.
-zVr, inf. ending, 116, 4, a.
igitur, 344, I, c).
Jf;?^, decl., 38.
-He, 148, 3.
7//^«, decl., 27.
-llis, 151, 2.
-His, 150, 4.
Illative conjunctions, 344.
tile, 87; 'the following,' 246, 2; 'the
former,' 246, I ; 'the well-known,' 246,
3; position, 350. 5, (J.
illuc, 87, footnote 3,
-illus {a, urn), 148, i.
-im, in ace, 3d decl., 38, i.
-im, -is in subjv., 116, 4, d.
impedimentum , impedimenta, 61.
Imperative, 281 ; tenses in, 94, 3 ; 281,1:
future indie, with force of, 261, 3.
as protasis of a conditional sent.,
305,2; as apodosis, 302, 4.
sent, in indir. disc, 316.
Imperfect lense, 260; conative, 260, 3;
withy'awi, etc., 260, 4.
General Index.
263
The references are to
Imperfect subjv. in conditional sent,
referring to the past, 304, 2.
Impersonal verbs, 138; gen. with, 209;
in passive, -^56, 3 ; 187, \\,b\ with sub-
stantive clauses of result, 297, 2 ; with
infin., 327, I ; 330.
impetus, defective, 57, 4.
Implied indir. disc, 323.
imiis, 'bottom of,' 241, i.
in, prep., 143.
ifi with abl. of time, 230, 2; 231.
-ina, 148, 5.
Inceptives, 155, 1.
Inclioatives, 155, i.
Indeclinable adjs., 70, 6; 80, 6.
nouns, 58 ; gender of, 15, 3.
Indefinite pronouns, 91 ; 252.
Indefinite second person, 280, 3 ; 356, 3 ;
302, 2.
Indicative, 271.
in apodosis of conditional sent, of
3d type, 304, 3 a) and b').
indiged, constr., 214, i, N. 2.
indlgnus, with abl., 226, 2 ; with rel. clause
of purpose, 282, 3.
Indirect discourse, 313 f. ; implied indir.
disc, 323; subordinate clauses in ind.,
314. 3.
questions, 300 ; in conditional sent.
of 3d type, 322, b.
reflexives, 244, 2.
object, 187.
Infer um, Inferior, 73, 2.
infimus, 241, I.
Infinitive, in -ier, 116, 4, a\ meaning of
tenses in, 270; 326 ff.
fut. perf. inf., 270, 4; periphrastic
future, 270, 3.
without subj. ace, 326-328 ; 314, 5.
with subj. ace, 329-331.
with adjs., 333.
denoting purpose, 326, N.
in abl. abs., 227, 3.
in exclamations, 334.
historical inf.,
infitias, 182, 5.
Inflection, 11. .
Inflections, 11 ff.
ingens,j2, 4-
injuria, 220, 2.
injussu, 57, I ; 219,
inl- = ill-, 9, 2.
mnlxus, 218, 3.
335-
sections and paragraphs.
inops, 70, 2.
inquam, 134.
Inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N.
Instar, with gen., 198, 2; 58.
Instrumental uses of abl., 213; 218 ff.
Intensive pron., 88.
Intensives (verbs), 155, 2.
inter to express reciprocal relation, 245.
interest, Q.oxi'iXx.,'2\o\ 211.
interior, 73, i.
Interjections, 145.
Interrogative pronouns, 90.
sentences, 162; particles, 162, 2;
omitted, 162, 2, d) ; in indir. disc, 315.
Intransitive verbs in passive, 256, 3 ; 187,
11,^.
-inus,\'^\,2.; 152,1; 152,3.
-id, verbs of 3d conj., 109.
Ipse, 88 ; 249 ; as indir. reflexive, 249, 3.
ips'ius and ipsorum, with possessive pro-
nouns, 243, 3.
-ir, decl. of nouns in, 23.
Irregular nouns, 42; verbs, 124 f.
is, 87 ; 247 ; as personal pron,, 247, 2.
-is, 148, 6, b).
-Is, ace. plu., 3d decl., 37; 40.
, -itis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c).
istaec, 87, footnote 3.
iste, 87 ; 246, 4.
ist'ic, 6, 4.
istilc, 6, 4 ; 87, footnote 3.
ita, in answers, 162, 5.
itaque, 344, i, a) ; accent of, 6, 6.
ttdque, 6, 6.
iter, 42, I.
-itia, 149.
-ium, gen. of nouns in, 25, 2; ending of
gen. plu., 3d decl, 37 f. ; 39; 40 ; 147, 3,
b) ; 148, 2.
-ius, gen. and voc. sing, of nouns in, 25,
I and 2; of adjs., 63, a; 151,2; 152,2;
152, 3 ; -ms for -ius, 362, \, a).
-Ivus, 151, 2.
J.
/, I, 2; length of vowel before, 5, A, i, c).
jacio, 109, 2, a) ; compounds of, 9, 3 ;
362.5.
jam, etc., with present tense, 259, 4 ; with
imperfect, 260, 4.
jecur, 42, 3.
joco, 220, 2.
jocus, plu. of, 60, 2.
264
General Index.
The references are to
jubed, 295, I, a; 331, II.
jugerum, 59, 1.
yapiter, 41.
juratus, 114, 2.
jure, 220, 2.
y«j' est, with substantive clause, 297, 3.
jussu, 57, I ; 219, 2.
Jussive subjv., 275 ; equiv. to a protasis,
305. 2.
juvat, 175, 2, ^).
juvenis, 38, 2; 73, 4.
A I, I.
K.
L.
Labial mutes, 2, 4.
stems, 31.
Lacedaemoni, 232, 4.
laevum, 185, 2.
/a//j, dec)., 33.
largior, 113.
Length of syllables, 5, B,
Length of vowels, 5, A.
lent us, 151, 3.
led, decl., 35.
Liber, decl., 23, 2,
I'lbero, constr., 214, i, N, i.
liber ta, llbet tabus, 21, 2, e).
Uberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c).
licet, 295, 6 and 8 ; with subjv., 308, a.
licet, adversative, 309, 4.
Lingual mutes, 2, 4.
linter, decl., 40.
Liquids, 2, 5.
stems, 34.
lis, decl., 40, I, £3?).
Litotes, 375, I.
littera, litterae, 61.
Locative, 17, i ; in -ae, 21, 2, c) ; in -i,
25, 5; syntax, 232; apposition with,
169.. 4; loc. uses of abl., 213; 228 f.
loco, loc is, 228, I, b.
locus, plurals of, 60, 2.
Long syllables, 5, B, i.
vowels, 5, A, I.
lo77giiis = long/us quam, 217. 3.
Ion gum est, 271, 1, b,
lubet, lubido, 9, i.
ludi, 230, I.
l^ix, 57, 7.
M.
mag is, comparison with, 74.
■magnopere, compared, 'j'], i.
sections and paragraphs.
magnus, compared, 72.
male, comparison, 'j'j, i.
maledicens, 71, 5, a),
malim, 280, 2, a.
mall em, 280, 4.
wa/J, 130; with inf., 331, IV, and w, v;'th
subjv., 296, I, a.
malus, comparison, 72.
mane, 58.
Manner, abl. of, 220.
mare, 39, 2 ; marl, 228, i, c).
mas, decl., 40, i, d).
Masculine, see Gender.
Masculine caesura, 368, 3 c.
mdteries, materia, 59, 2, a),
mature, compared, 77, i.
mdtiirus, compared, 71, 3.
mdxime, compared with, 74.
maxumus, 9, i.
Means, abl. of, 218.
medius, ' middle of,' 241, 1.
med, 84, 3.
Afediae (consonants), 2, 3, b) , footnote 2.
mel, as objective gen., 242, 2.
melius est, 271, i b).
memlnl, 133; constr., 206, i, a; 2, a.
memor, 70, 2.
-men, -mejitum, 147, 4.
mensls, 38, 2, footnote i.
mentem {in mentem venire^ , 206, 3.
-met, 6, 3 ; 84, 2.
Metrical close of sent., 350, 12.
metud, 296, 2.
»?;, dat., 84, I ; voc, 86, 2.
wJ, voc. of meus, 86, 2.
Middle voice, verbs in, 175, 2, ^.
miles, decl., 33.
mllitiae, 232, 2.
mllle, uilllia, 80, 5.
miniitie, in answers, 162, 5, <5).
minimu7n, jj, 3.
minus — minus quam, 217, 3.
mtror, 113.
mlrus, 75, 2.
miscere, with abl., 218, 5 ; with dat., 358, 3.
misereor, with gen., 209, 2.
jniseresco, with gen., 209, 2.
miseret, constr., 209.
medium, gen. plu., 25, 6, a),
wzc*^)?, in wishes and provisos, 310.
moneo, 103 ; constr., 178, ^, d).
months, dec!., 68, i ; 70, 5, a) ; names,
371, I.
General Index.
265
The references are to
Moods, 94, 2.
in independent sentences, 271 f.
in dependent clauses, 282 f.
morior, 109, 2, c).
Mora, 366, I.
w^i', decl., 36 ; 7ndres, 61.
mos est, with substantive clause, 297, 3,
muliebfe seats, 185, i.
multum, 77, 3 ; compared, 77, i.
multus, compared, 72 ; with another adj.,
241. 3-
mus, decL, 40, i, d^.
mutare, with abl., 218, 5.
Mutes, 2, 3.
Mute stems, 30.
N.
n adulter'inum, 2, 6.
-na}?t, 90, 2, d.
Nasals, 2, 6.
Nasal stems, 35.
ndtu, 57, I ; 73, 4, footnotes, 4, 5 ; 226, i.
Natural gender, 14.
natus, constr., 215.
navis, 41, 4.
-ne, 6, 3 f ; 162, 2, ^) ; 300, i, h) ; -«<? . . .
<2«, 162, 4; in indir. double questions,
300,4.
tie, in prohibitions, 276; with hortatory
subjv., 274 ; with jussive, 275 ; with con-
cessive, 278 ; with optative, 279 ; in
substantive clauses, 295 f.
lie, ' lest,' 282, i; 296, 2.
lie non for ut after verbs of fearing, 296,
2, a.
ne . . . guide m, 347, i.
nee, 341, 1, d) ; nee usguam, 341, 2j d).
necesse est, 295, 8.
necfie, 162, 4.
«^/ aj, 58,
Negatives, 347, 2 ; two negatives strength-
ening the negation, 347, 2.
nemo, 57, 3 ; 252, 6.
nequavi, 70, 6 ; compared, 72.
neque, 341, i, <f ) ; »<?^«tf in purpose
clauses, 282, i, e.
nequed, 137, i,
nequiter, compared, 'jt, i.
nescio quis, 253, 6 ; nescid an, 300, 5.
Neuter, see Gender.
neuter, 66 ; 92, i.
«^z/(f {neu), in purpose clauses, 282, i, d.
nihil, 58.
sections and paragraphs.
nihil est cur, quare, quln, 295, 7.
^^j-;, 306, I and 4.
nisi forte, 306, 5.
«/j'/ jJ, 306, 5.
nisi vero, 306, 5.
7tl.tor, constr., 218, 3.
nix, decl., 40, i, d).
fioll, with inf., in prohibitions, 276, c.
nolim, 280, 2, a:.
no Hem, 280, 4.
ndlo,i2P\ with inf., 331, IV and a; 2/0,
2, (z; with subjv., 296, i, a.
nomen, decl.. 35 ; ndmen est, constr,,
190,1.
Nominative, 17; 170; used for voc,
171, I ; noin. sing, lacking, 57, 6.
Nones, 371, 2, b).
non, in answers, 162, $, b) ; with pofen.
subjv., 280 ; with deliberative, 277.
non modo for non modo non, 343, 2, a.
ftonne, 162, 2, «) ; 300, i, b), N.
ndn quia, with ind., 286, i, c; with subjv.,
286, I, b.
non qiiin, with subjv., 286, I, b.
non quod, with ind., 286, \,c\ with subjv.,
286. I, b.
nostrt, as objective gen., 242, 2.
nostrufn, as gen. of whole, 242, 2 ; as
possessive gen., 242, 2, a.
Nouns, 12 ff. ; 353; derivation of, 147 f.
— — in -is not always :-stems, 38, i.
of agency, force, 353, 4.
used in plu. only, 56.
used in sing, only, 55.
used only in certain cases, 57.
indeclinable, 58.
with change of meaning in plural , 61.
syntax, 166 f.
predicate, agreement of, etc., 167 f.
appositives, agreement of, etc.,
169 f.
Noun and adj. forms of the verb, 95, 2.
novl, as pres., 262, A.
novus, compared, 73, 3.
-ns, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, c).
nulla causa est cur, quare, quln, 295, 7.
nullus, 66; 57, 3 ; 92, i.
Number, 16; 94, 4.
num, 162, 2, b) ; 300, i, <5).
Numerals, 78 f. ; peculiarities in use o^
81.
nuper^ compared, 77, i.
-nus, 151, 2.
266
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
o.
-0-, stems in, 23.
0, instead of u in some words, 9, i ; 9, 4.
Object, direct, 172 f. ; indirect, 187 f.
Objective gen., 200.
Oblique cases, 17, 2.
obl'iv'iscor, constr., 206, i,b\ 2.
od'i, 133.
olle, archaic for ille, 87.
-olus {a, urn), 148, i.
-o?n, later -tun in 2d decl., 23.
-on, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27.
Onomatopoeia, 375, 4.
opera, operae, 61.
opln'io/ie with abl., 217, 4.
^/>/.y, 57, 6 ; <?/t5, 61.
oporict, 295, 6 and 8.
oportiiit, witli pres. inf. ' ought to have,'
270, 2 ; with perf. inf., 270, 2, a.
Optative subjv., 272; 279; substantive
clauses developed from, 296.
optimZites, decl., 40, i, d).
optiwius, 9, I.
opus est, 218, 2.
-or, 147, 2.
Oratio Obliqua, 313 f.
Ordinals, 78, i ; 79.
oriimdus, constr., 215, 2.
oro, witli ace, 178, i, a).
Orthography, peculiarities, 9.
ortus, constr., 215.
OS, 57. 7-
OS, 42.
-<?j, later -us in 2d decl., 23.
-OS, later -or in 3d decl., 36, i.
, -OS, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27.
-osus, 151, 3.
Oxymoron, 375, 2.
P.
paenitet, with gen., 209.
palam, 144, 2.
Palatal mutes, 2, 4.
Parasitic vowels, 7, 3.
paratns with infin., 333.
pario, 109, 2, a),
pars, partes, 61.
parte, 228, I, ^.
partetn, 185, I.
Participial stem, 97, III; formation, 119.
Particiiilos, in -dns and -ens, 70, 3 ; syn-
tax, 336 If.
Participles, fut. act., 119, 4; denoting
purpose, 337, 4.
perf. act., how supplied, 356, 2.
perf. pass., 336, 3 ; as pres., 336, 5.
pres. partic, 336, 2; with conative
force, 336, 2, a.
perf. pass., with active meaning,
114, 2; with noun equivalent to ab-
stract noun, 337,6 ; with habed, 337, 7.
with video, audio, /acid, etc., 337, 3.
of deponents, 112, b.
Particles, 139 f. ; 341 f.
Partitive apposition, 169, 5.
Partitive gen,, so called, 2oi.
Parts of speech, 10.
parum, comparison. 77, i.
parvus, comparison, 72.
Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning,
175, 2, d)\ 256; constr. of passive
verbs of saying, etc., 332, and note;
how supplied when missing, 356, i.
patior, 109, 2,^) ; 113; with inf., 331, III.
Patrial adjs., 70, 5, c),
Patronyms, 148, 6.
paulum, 77, 3.
paulus, 9, 2.
pelagus, gender of, 26, 2.
penates, decl, 40, i, d).
Pentameter, dactylic, 369.
Penult, 6, 2.
per with ace. of time and space, 181, 2.
Perfect active ptc, how supplied in Latin,
356. 2.
Perfect tense, 262; 268, i.
stem, 97, II ; formation, 118.
in -av'i, -evl, -Ivi contracted, 116, I.
historical perf., 262.
with force of pres., 262 ; 133, 2,
Periodic structure, 351, 5.
Periphrastic conj., 115; 269,3; '" con-
ditional sentences of the 3d type, 304,
3, b) ; in indir. disc, 322; in passive,
337. 8, b, I.
fut. inf., 270, 3.
Persons, 95, 4; 2d sing, of indefinite
subject. 356, 3.
Personal pronouns, 84; 242; as subject,
omission of, 166, 2; as objective geni-
tives, 242, 2.
endings, 96.
piget, with gen., 209.
Place whence, 229 ; place where, 228.
placitus, 114, 2.
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
2^7
plebes, 59, 2, d) ; plebl, 52, 2.
Plenty and Want, verbs of, constr., 212,
cf. 218. 8.
pl'enus, 218, 8, a.
Pleonasm, 374, 3.
plerdque, 6, 5.
Pluperfect tense, 263; 287, 2; 288, 3;
with imperfect meaning, 133, 2.
Plural, 16; in 5th deal., 52, 4; of proper
names, 55, 4, a) ; of abstract nouns,
55, 4,'^); nouns used in, only, 56;
with change of meaning, 61 ; stylistic
use, 353, I ; 2.
Pluralia tantiim, 56; 81, 4, b).
plus, jo; 70,4; ^plus quajn, Q.lj, ■^.
Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b).
posed, 178, I, a).
Position of clauses, 351, 3.
of words, 348; 350; 351.
Possessive dat., 190; gen., 198; con-
trasted v/ith dat. of poss., 359, i.
Possessive pronouns, 86; 243; = objec-
tive gen., 243, 2 ; position of, 243,
I, a.
possuvi, 126 ; with present infin. ' I might,'
271, I, a).
post, 144, I ; in expressions of time,
357. I-
Post-positive words, 343, i, c).
posteaquam, 287, i ; 4,
posterus, posterior, 73, 2.
postquam, 287 ; separated, 287, 3 ; with
imperf. ind., 287, 4; with subjv., 287, 5.
postremus, 241, 2.
postr'idie, with gen., 201, 3, a.
postulo, constr,, 178, i, a.
Potential subjv., 272; 280,
potior, with gen., 212, 2 ; with abl., 218, i ;
in gerundive constr., 339, 4.
, adj., 73, I.
pottus, compared, 77, i.
potui,poteram, in apodosis of conditional
sent, of 3d type, 304, 3, a) ; in indir.
disc, 322, c.
potui, with pres. inf. = ' could have,'
270, 2.
potuerim, in dependent apodosis, 322, c.
potus, 114, 2.
praesens, 125.
pyat7~Jis, 114, 2.
prec'i, -em, -e, 57, 5, t.
Predicate, 163.
gen., 198,3; 203,5.
Predicate nouns, 167; 168; in ace, 177;
predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to
dat., 327, 2, a ; to nom., 328, 2.
adjectives, 232, 2; 177, a.
Prepositions with ace, 141 ; with abl.,
142 ; as adverbs, 144 ; inseparable
prepositions, 159, 3, N. ; position,
350, 7 ; prepositional phrases as at-
tributive modifiers, 353, 5 ; anastrophe
of, 144, 3; 141, 2; 142, 3; usage with
abl. of Sep., 214 f. ; with abl. of source,
215.
Present tense, 259 ; gnomic, 259, i ; con-
ative, 259, 2 ; historical, 259, 3 ; with
jam, etc., 259, 4.
stem, 97, I; formation, 117.
perfect, 262.
Price, indefinite, special words in gen.,
203, 4.
abl. of, 225.
pr'idie, with gen., 201, 3, a; with ace,
144, 2.
Primary tenses, see Principal tenses.
pr'itnus, ' first who,' 241, 2.
pr'inceps, decl., 31.
Principal parts, 99 ; list, p. 251.
tenses, 258 f.
prior, compared, 73, i.
prius, compared, jj, i.
priusquam,W\\h. ind., 291; with subjv.,
292; separated, 291.
procul, 144, 2.
Prohibitions, method of expressing,
276.
Prohibitive subjv., 276.
Prolepsis, 374, 5.
Pronominal adjs., 253.
Pronouns, 82 f. ; personal, omission of, as
subject, 166, 2 ; syntax, 242 f. ; per-
sonal, 242 f. ; possess., 243 f. ; reflex.,
244 f. ; reciprocal, 245 f . ; demonstra-
tive, 246 f. ; relative, 250 f. ; indef.,
252 f. ; position, 350, 5 ; 355.
Pronunciation, Roman, 3.
prope, compared, ']j, i.
Proper names, abbreviated, 373.
nouns, 12, I.
propior, compared, 73, i ; with ace, 141,
3.
proprius, with dat., 204, 2, a ; with gen.,
204, 2.
Prosody, 360 f.
prosum, 125, N.
268
General Index.
The references are to
Protasis, 301 ; denoting repeated action,
302, 3 ; witliout SI, 305 ; of indef. 2d
sing., 302, 2.
Provisos, 310.
pr ox 17)16, -us, with ace, 141, 3.
prudens, 70.
-pte, 86, 3.
pudet, uith gen., 209.
puer, decl., 23.
Purpose, how denoted, 282; 338, 3; 339,
2, 6 ; 340, I ; 191 ; 337, 4.
Purpose clauses, 282; independent of
principal verb, 282, 4 ; 339, 6 ; 340, i.
Q.
-qu-, both letters consonants, 74, a.
quaerb, 300, i, <^), N.
quaesb, 137, 2.
Quality, gen., 203 ; 224, 3 ; abl., 224.
quam, in comparisons, 217, 2 ; with su-
perl., 240, 3.
quam si, 307, i.
quam ut, with subjv., 284, 4.
quamquam, with ind., 309, 2; with subjv.,
309, 6 ; = ' and yet,' 309, 5.
quamvis, with subjv., 309, I ; 6 ; denot-
ing a fact, 309, 6.
quandb, 286, 3, b.
Quantity, 5.
of syllables, 5, B; 363 f.
of vowels, 5, A ; 362 ; in Greek
words, 365.
quasi, 307, i.
qziatib, 109, 2, a).
-que, accent of word preceding, 6, 3 ; 6
6; 341; \,b)\ 2, a) ; 4,^).
queb, 137, I.
Questions, word, sentence, 162 f. ; rhetor-
ical, 162,3; double (alternative), 162,
4 ; indirect, 300 ; questions in indir.
disc, 315.
qui,xe\.,Zg; intern, 90; indef., 91 ; for
quis in indir. questions, 90, 2, b; with
ne, St, nisi, num, 91, 5 ; in purpose
clauses, 282, 2; abl., 90, 2, a.
quia, in causal clauses, 286, i.
quicum, 89.
quicumque, 91, 8.
qu'idam, 91 ; syntax, 252, 3.
qutdem, post-positive, 347, i.
qui 1 1 bet, 91.
qu'in, in result clauses, 284, 3 ; in sub-
stantive clauses, 295, 3 ; 298 ; = qui
sections and paragraphs.
nbn in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4;
with ind., 281, 3; in indir. disc, 322
and a; nulla causa est qu'in, 295, 7.
qiiinam, 90, 2, d.
Qu'intilis (= Julius), 371.
qu'ippe qui, 283, 3.
Quir'ites, dec!., 40, i, d.
quis, indef., 91; interr., 90; 90, 2, c; 252,
I ; nescio quis, 253, 6 ; with ne, si, nisi,
nu?n, 91, 5.
quis = quibus, 89.
quisnam, 90, 2, d.
quispiam, 91.
quisquam, 91 ; 252, 4,
quisque, 91 ; 252, 5.
quisquis, 91, 8.
qulvis, 91.
qub, in purpose clauses, 282, i, a.
quoad, with ind., 293 ; with subjv., 293,
III, 2.
quod, in causal clauses, 286, i ; in sub-
stantive clauses, 299; 331, V, a; 'as
regards the fact,' 299, 2.
quod audierim, 283, 5; quod sciam,
283,5.
quod si, 185, 2.
quom, 9, I.
qub minus, 295, 3.
quoniam, 286, I.
quoque, post-positive, 347.
-quus, decl. of nouns in, 24.
R.
rapid, 109, 2, a) .
rastrum, plurals of, 60, 2.
Reciprocal pronouns, 85, 2 ; 245 ; of.
253. 3-
Reduplication in perf., 118, 4, a) ; in
pres., 117, 7.
r'efert, constr., 210; 211, 4.
Reflexive pronouns, 85 ; 244; 249, 3.
regb, 105.
rel, 362, I, ^).
reicib, 362, 5.
Relative clauses, 311; 312; character-
istic, 283,
conditional sentences, 312, 2.
pronouns, 89 ; 250 f. ; = Eng. de-
monstrative, 251, 6; agreement, 250;
fondness for subordinate clauses, 355.
clauses with dlgnus, indlgnus, tdb-
neus, 282, 3.
of purpose, 282, 2; of result, 284, 2.
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
269
Relative, taking ace. and infin. in indir.
disc, 314, 4.
reliqul, 253, 5.
remex, deal., 32.
remm'iscor, constr., 206, 2.
reposed, constr., 178, 1, a),
requ'i'es, requiem, requietem, 59, 2, c).
res, decl., 51.
Result, ace. of, 173, B; 176; clauses
of, 284; 297; in dependent apodosis,
322, and a; sequence of tense in,
268, 6.
revertor, 114, 3.
Rhetorical questions, 162, 3; 277, a\ in
indir. disc, 315, 2.
Rhotacism, 8, i ; 36, i.
rogatu, 219, 2.
rogo, constr., 178, i, c) ; 178, i, a).
Roman pronunciation, 3.
Root, 17, 3, footnote i.
-rs^ decl. of nouns in, 40, i, c).
ru e, 229, I, b.
ruA, 228, I, c.
rus, 182, I, d ; 57, 7.
-J, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded
t)y one or more consonants, 40, i, d).
j-stems, 36.
sacer, 65 ; comparison, 73, 3.
sa*pe, compared, 77, i.
sa^. 57, 7; sales, 61.
sa.ubris, 68, 3,
saiutaris, 73, 4.
sa^v'e, salv'ete, \yj, 4.
Samn'it'es, decl., 40, i, d),
sane, in answers, 162, 5.
sapid, 109, 2, a).
scio, quod sciam, 283, 5.
scrtbere ad aliquem, 358, 2.
J^, 244.
Second conj., 103 ; decl., 23 ; peculiarities,
25; second person indefinite, 280, 3;
356, 3 ; 302, 2.
Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses.
secus, compared, 77, i.
secus {virile secus), 185, i; 58.
s'ed, 85, 3.
sed, 343, I, a) .
sedlle, decl., 39.
Semi-deponent verbs, 114.
Semivowels, 2, 8.
senex, 42; compared, 73, 4.
Sentences, classification, 160 f. ; simple
and compound, 164; sentence-struct-
ure, 351 ; sentence questions, 162, 2.
sententia, 220, 3.
Separation, dat. of, 188, 2, d) ; gen., 212,
3; abl., 214,
Sequence of tenses, 267 ; 268.
sequor, 113.
servos, 24.
s'ese, 85.
Sext'ilis (= Augustus), 371.
Short syllables, 5, B, 2; vowels, 5, A, 2.
St, with indir. questions, 300, 3 ; in pro-
tasis, 301 ; omitted, 305.
signifer, decl., 23, 2.
sileiitio, 220, 2.
silvestris, 68, 3.
similis, with dat., 204, 3; with gen., 204,
3; comp., 71, 4.
St minus, 306, 2.
simul, 144, 2.
simul ac, 287, I ; 2.
ji non, 306, I and 2.
sin, 306, 3.
Singular, second person indefinite, 280,
3 : 356. 3 ; 302, 2.
sino, with inf., 331, III.
Smelling, verbs of, constr., 170, 5.
Soft consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 2.
socer, decl., 23, 2.
socium, gen. plu., 25, 6, c).
J^A 57. 7-
J<7/<?^, 114, I.
j^/«j, 66; solus est qui with subjv., 283, 2.
Sonant consonants, 2, 3, ^), footnote 2.
Sbracte, 39, 2.
Sounds, classification, 2.
of the letters, 3.
Source, abl., 215.
Specification, abl. of, 226.
spei, 362, i.,b.
Spelling, see Orthography.
Spirants, 2, 7..
Spondaic verses, 368, 2.
sponte sua, 220, 3.
spontis, -e, 57, 2, ^.
Stem, 17, 3.
, verb, 97, 117.
Style, hints on, 352 f.
su = sv, 3, 3.
sub, with ace. and abl., 143.
Subject, 163 ; nom., 166; ace, 184; sub-
ject ace. of inf.. 184 ; omitted, 314, 5.
2/0
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Subjective gen., 199.
Subjunctive, tenses in, 94, 3.
in independent sentences, 272 ; by
attraction, 324; tenses of, 266 f. ;
method of expressing future time in,
269 ; volitive (hortatory, jussive,
prohibitive, deliberative, concessive),
273 f.; optative (wishes), 279; poten-
tial, 280; in clauses of purpose, 282;
of characteristic, 283 ; of result, 284 ;
of cause, 286; temporal clauses with
postquam, posteaguam, 287,5; tempo-
ral clauses with cu7n, 288-290; with
antequam and priusquam, zgz; with
dum, donee, quoad, 293, III, 2; sub-
stantive clauses, 294 f. ; indir. ques-
tions, 300; in apodosis of first type
conditions, 302, 4 ; jussive subjunct've
as protasis of condition, 305, 2; with
velut, tamquam, etc., 307 ; with neeesse
est, oportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8 ; with
licet, 308, a ; 309, 4 ; with quamvls,
quamquam, etsi, cum,' although,' 390 f.
sublatus, p. 99, footnote.
subm- = sumni-, 9, 2.
Subordinate clauses, 165.
Substantive clauses, 294 f. ; without ut,
295, 8 ; of result, 297 ; introduced by
quod, 299.
subter, 143, i.
Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote i ; 147 f.
sui, 85 ; as objective gen., 244, 2 ; = pos-
sessive gen., 244, 2.
sum, 100.
summus, ' top of,' 241, i.
sunt qui, with subjv., 283, 2.
sudpte, suapte, 86, 3.
s up e Ilex, 42, 2.
super, 143, I.
superus, compared, 73, 2.
Superlative lacking, 73, 4; force of,
240, 2.
Supine, 340.
Surd consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote i.
sus, decl., 41.
sustuli, p. 99, footnote.
suus, 86, I ; 244 ; suus quisque, 244, 4, a.
Syllaba anceps, 366, 10.
Syllables, 4; quantity of, 5, B.
Synapheia, 367, 6.
Synaeresis, 367, i.
Synchysis, 350, 11, d).
Syncope, 7, 4; 367,8.
Synecdochical ace, 180.
Synizesis, 367, i.
Syntax, 160 f.
Systole, 367, 3.
T.
taedet, 209.
talentum, gen. plu., 25, 6, a).
tamen, 343, i,/.
tarn et si, 309, 2.
tamquam, tamquam si, y)j.
t ant on, 6, 4.
-tas, 149 ; gen. -tatis, decl. of nouns in.
40, I, e).
Tasting, verbs of, constr., 176, 5.
ted, 84, 3.
Temporal clauses, 287 ff.
temporis {id temporis) , 185, 2.
tener, 64.
Tenses, 94, 3; 257 fif. ; of inf., 270; of
inf. in indir. disc, 317; of participles,
336; of subjv,, 266; sequence of, 2/^6;
in indir. disc, 317; 318.
Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnot(? i.
tenus, position, 142, 3.
Terminations, 17, 3.
-ternus, 154.
terra niarlque, 128, I, c.
terrestris, 68, 3.
Tetrameter verses, 366, 11.
Thesis, 366. 6.
Third conj., 105; 109 f. ; decl., 28 /. ;
gender in, 43 f.
-tim, 157, 2.
Time, at which, 230; during which, 181;
231, I ; within which, 231.
timed n'e and ut, 296, 2.
-tinus, 154.
-tib, 147, 3.
Tmesis, 367, 7.
-tor, use of nouns in, 353, 4.
totus, 66; 228, I, b).
trabs, decl., 31.
traditur, traditum est, 332, N.
trails, constr. of verbs compounded with,
179.
Transitive verbs, 174.
tres, 80, 3.
tribus, decl., 49, 3.
Trimeter verses, 366, 11.
trim, 81, 4, b).
triumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, V),
Trochee, 366, 2.
4th decl., 49, 2.
, 287, I ; 2 ; with gen., 201, 3.
49.3-
2d
-trutn, 147, 4.
tu, 84.
-tudo, 149.
tul, as objective gen., 242, 2.
-^«ra, 147, 3, a).
tus, 57, 7.
-/«j, 147, 3; 151,4,
tussis, deal., 38.
tute, tutemet, 84, 2.
U.
u, instead of i in some words, 9, 1; in
stead of ^,9, i ; 9, 4.
u, becomes v, 367, 4.
«-stems, 48.
«-stems, 41.
■u, dat. sing.
?<^/, with ind.
• ubus, dat. plu., 4th decl,
iillus, 66.
ulterior^ compared, 73, i.
tdthjius, 241, 2.
-///^j-, 150, 2; (a, uni), 148, I.
-aw, 1st dec!., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, d)
decl., 25, 6.
-undus, -ufidl, in gerund and gerundive,
116, 2.
««?/j-, 66 ; 92, I ; unus est qui, with
subjv., 283, 2.
-us, neuter nouns of 2d decl. in, 26, 2.
usque ad, 141, i.
usus est, with abl., 218, 2.
ut, temporal, 287, i; 2; ut, utl, in pur-
pose clauses, 282; in result clauses,
284; in substantive clauses,
substantive clauses without,
with verbs of fearing, 296, 2.
utne = ne, 282, i, b.
ut non instead oine, 282, \, c\ in clauses
of result, 284, 297.
ut qui, introducing clauses of character-
istic, 283, 3.
ut St, 307, I.
uter, 66 ; 92, i.
titer, decl., 40, i, d).
utercumque, 92, 2.
uterlibet, 92, 2.
uterque, 92, 2; 355, 2.
utervls, 92, 2.
utilius est, '2'j\, i, iJ).
utinam, with optative subj., 279, i and 2.
«/(7r, with abl., 218, i : in gerundive
constr., 339, 4.
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
utrdque, 6, 5.
271
295
295.
utrum . . . an, 162, 4 ; 300, 4.
V.
V, I, I.
z/, becomes u. ■567, q.
z'fl/?, 363, 2, ^j.
Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, 3.
vannus, gender of, 26, i, b).
vds, 59, I.
-■ve, 6, 3; 342, I, b).
vel, 342, I, b) ; with superl., 240, 3.
velwi, 280, 2, a.
vellem, 280, 4.
t/^/«/, ve lilt si, 307, I.
venter, decl., 40, i, a?).
Verbs, 94 f. ; personal endings, 96 ; de-
ponent, 112; archaic and poetic forms,
116, 4; irregular, 124; defective, 133;
impersonal, 138 ; with substantive
clauses of result, 297, 2; omission of,
166, 3; transitive, 174; used abso-
lutely, 174, a; passives used as mid-
dles, 175, 2, d) ; of smelling and
tasting, constr., 176, 5; not used in
passive, 177, 3, a; intransitives im-
personal in passive, 187, II, b; 256,
3; compounded with preps., constr.,
187, III; of judicial action, constr.,
208 ; derivation of, 155 f. ; inceptive
or inchoative, 155, i ; frequentative or
intensive, 155, 2; desiderative, 155,
3; denominative, 156; agreement of,
254 f.
Verb stems, 97; formation of, 117 f.
vereor, 1 13 ; 296, 2.
Vergilius, gen. of, 25, i.
veto, 343, i,^) ; in answers, 162, 5,
Verse, 366, 3.
Verse-structure, 366 f.
Versification, 361,
versus, 141, 2.
veru77t, 343, 1, b^.
vescor, with abl., 218, I.
vesper, decl., 23, 2.
vesper I, ■2'>,2., 2.
vestr'i, 242, 2.
vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; as
possessive gen., 242, 2, a.
veto, with inf., 331, II,
vetus, 70; compared, J2> 3-
vl, 220, 2.
vicem, 185, i ; vicis, vice, 57, 5, b.
2/2
General Index.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
victor, decl., 34.
viden, 6, 4.
video, with pres. partic, 337, 3.
vigil, decl., 34.
violenter, jj, 4, a.
vir, decl., 23,
, gen. plu. of nouns compounded
with, 25, 6, (5).
vhile secus, 185, i.
virus, gender of, 26, 2„
z/w, dec)., 41.
Vocative case, 17 ; 19, i ; 171 ; in -i for
-le, 25, I ; position of, 350, 3.
Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a.
Voiced consonants, 2, 3, b).
Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a.
Voices, 94; 256; middle voice, 256, i.
Volitive subjunctive, 272 f.
volniis, 9, I.
volb, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a\ 270,
2, a; with subjv., 296, i, a.
volt, 9. I.
volt us, 9, I.
voluntate, 220, 2.
-volus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.
Vowels, 2, I ; sounds of the, 3, i ; quan-
tity of, 5, A; contraction of, 7, 2; par-
asitic, 7, 3.
Vowel changes, 7.
vulgus, gender of, 26, 2.
-t^2<w, -z/«^, decl. of nouns in, 24.
W.
Wish, clauses with dum, etc., expressing
a, 310.
Wishes, subjunctive in, 279; see Opta-
tive subjunctive.
Word-formation, 146 f.
Word-order, 348 f.
Word questions, 162, i.
X.
X, 2, 9.
-X, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by
one or more cons., 40, i, b).
Y.
y, 1. 1.
' You/ indefinite, 356, 3 ; 280, 3 ; 302, 2,
2, I, I ; 2, 9.
Zeugma, 374, 2, a).
LA TIN. 15
Latin Lessons.
By Professor CHARLES E. BENNETT, of Cornell University. i6mo,
cloth, 191 pages. Price, 70 cents.
PROFESSOR BENNETT is a believer in the old-fashioned
method of beginning Latin, that is, learning the forms first,
learning them in order, and learning them once and for all. The
Latin Lessons is a book that sends the beginner directly to the
grammar for forms and rules, taking them up in their regular
order. Complete sentences are found in the very first lesson,
and easy stories are introduced as soon as the pupil has learned
enough grammar, in the regular order, to read them. Teachers
who believe in the method of " resolute, systematic, and sustained
attack on declensions and conjugations " will find Professor Ben-
nett's new book admirably suited to help them in their work.
A. L. K. Volkmann, Volkmann School, Boston, Mass. : I like Bennett's
Latin Lessons very much. You are getting somewhere, and you know
what you have got, and you get the whole thing, which is the main point.
The Foundations of Latin.
A book for Beginners. Revised Edition. By Professor C. E. BENNETT^
of Cornell University. i2mo, cloth, 250 pages. Price, 90 cents.
THIS book presents the matter for the beginner in Latin in
sixty chapters, the first thirty-five devoted almost entirely
to inflections, the remaining twenty-five to syntax, both subjects
being treated in the order in which they are usually found in the
grammar. Such rules of syntax as are needed for reading and
writing simple sentences are given in the earliest lessons, so that
the pupil has constant drill on the forms while acquiring them ;
but the systematic study of general syntax is postponed till the
pupil shall h?ve mastered the forms. The book serves equally
well as an introduction to Caesar or Nepos.
Dr. R. M. Jones, Penn Charter School, Philadelphia, Pa. : We have adopted
Bennett's Foundations of Latin. It is the best book of its class.
George D. Bartlett, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. : I have used a great
many introductory Latin books, and have found none so satisfactory as
Bennett's Foundations of Latin.
16 LA TIN.
Ccesar's Gallic War.
Books I.-IV. Indicated quantities, Introduction, Notes, Vocabulary,
Illustrations, and colored Maps and Plans. Edited by Professor
Charles E. Bennett, of Cornell University. i2mo, cloth, 352 pages.
Price, $1.00.
IN his Caesar, Professor Bennett has had constantly in mind the
point of view and the needs of the elementary pupil. No
pains, therefore, have been spared to make the Notes simple in
style, clear in statement, and pertinent and interesting in content.
Every real difficulty receives consideration and explanation, par-
ticular care being taken to indicate the course of the thought and
the connection of ideas. Book II. has been annotated with
especial fulness for the benefit of those teachers who prefer to
begin with this book rather than with Book I.
In matters of grammar and syntax, the editor, while following
the treatment and nomenclature of his own Latin Grammar, has
also inserted references to the other Latin grammars in common
use. An Introduction of thirty-one pages treats of Caesar's life
and of the Roman art of war as practised in his day.
Cicero's Orations.
Indicated quantities, full Introduction, Notes, Vocabulary, Illustrations,
and two colored Maps. Edited by Professor CHARLES E. BENNETT.
i2mo, cloth, 374 pages. Price, ^i.oo.
THIS edition includes seven Orations, — the four Catilines, the
Manilian Law, Archias, and Marcellus.
The aim of the editor is not merely to help the pupil to a cor-
rect rendering of the text, sentence by sentence, but also to bring
out the larger relations of thought which make these speeches
masterpieces of the art of oratory. With this in mind, the Notes
are intended to give a full historical outline of the circumstances
of each oration, to keep the pupil in touch with the logic of the
argument, and to give an adequate explanation of all points of
Roman law or custom.
LATIN. 17
Virgil's /Eneid : Books I-VI.
Edited by Professor Charles E. Bennett, of Cornell University,
With Introduction, Notes, Vocabulary, Illustrations, and Map. i2ino,
cloth, 491 pages. Price, $1.20.
THIS edition of Virgil has the characteristics which distinguish
all Professor Bennett's books, — simplicity, clearness, and
scholarly accuracy.
A valuable feature of the book is the Introduction, containing
a brief outline of VirgiPs life, an appreciation of his various works,
and a full explanation of the quantitative reading of Latin poetry,
together with classified verses for practice. Further assistance is
given the student in reading aloud, by the indicated quantities in
Book I.
The notes aim to give all the information that may be needed
by the average pupil in our secondary schools. In matters of
syntax all poetic constructions or other peculiarities are fully
explained as they occur ; while on the literary side, all of the
mythological and legendary allusions are made clear. These
classical stories are further illustrated by a number of admirable
pictures reproducing, in all cases, ancient statuary.
Grammatical references are to the authors Latin Grammar and
to the latest editions of Allen and Greenough, Harkness, and
Gildersleeve.
The Quantitatiue Reading of Latin Poetry.
By Professor CHARLES E. Bennett. i2mo, paper, 49 pages. Price,
25 cents.
BELIEVING that a more thorough study of the oral reading
of Latin Poetry may prove a source of pleasure and profit,
not only to the pupils but also to many teachers of the language.
Professor Bennett has prepared this little monograph emphasiz-
ing the importance of the knowledge of quantities as well as of
rhythm.
LA TIN.
Preparatory Latin Writer.
By Professor CHARLES E. BENNETT, of Cornell University. i6mo,
cloth, 202 pages. Price, 80 cents.
Latin Composition.
By Professor CHARLES E. BENNETT. i6mo, cloth, 172 pages. Price
80 cents.
THESE books have been prepared with the conviction that the*
primary function of Latin Composition in secondary schools
is to extend and strengthen the pupiPs knowledge of Latin gram-
mar. Accordingly, the lessons are devoted mainly to exercises
in applying the principles of the various case and mood construc-
tions recognized in our Latin Grammars. In order that the writ-
ing of continuous discourse may not be neglected, passages of
simple English narrative, involving the principles covered in the
previous exercises, are frequently introduced.
The illustrative examples given at the beginning of each lesson
have been drawn with great care from Latin literature. The Eng-
lish sentences set for translation into Latin have also, in most
cases, been suggested by passages occurring in the works of
classical authors.
The Preparatory Latin Writer is based on Caesar, and is in«
tended for the second year of the usual Latin course. All the
exercises for translation are taken from Caesar's Gallic War.
Among these exercises are forty in continued discourse. At the
end of the book will be found quite a number of recent papers
in Latin Composition, set for college entrance examinations.
The Latin Composition is intended for work in the third or
fourth year of the Latin course, and its exercises for translation
are taken almost wholly from Cicero.
Strong features of both of the books are : (i) systematic
presentation of grammatical principles ; (2) numerous easy
model sentences to illustrate the rules of grammar ; (3) well-
graded exercises for translation into Latin, giving systematic
drill on grammatical principles ; (4) frequent practice in con-
aected composition along with the exercises.
I T^ 2. a
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